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The Caucasian War (russian: Кавказская война; ''Kavkazskaya vojna'') or Caucasus War was a 19th century military conflict between the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
and various peoples of the North Caucasus who resisted subjugation during the
Russian conquest of the Caucasus The Russian conquest of the Caucasus mainly occurred between 1800 and 1864. The Russian Empire sought to control the region between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. South of the mountains was the territory that is modern Armenia, Azerbaijan, Geor ...
. It consisted of a series of
military action War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular ...
s waged by the
Russian Imperial Army The Imperial Russian Army (russian: Ру́сская импера́торская а́рмия, tr. ) was the armed land force of the Russian Empire, active from around 1721 to the Russian Revolution of 1917. In the early 1850s, the Russian Ar ...
and Cossack settlers against the native inhabitants such as the Adyghe, AbazaAbkhaz,
Ubykhs The Ubykh ( Ubykh: Пэху / Туахы, ''Pəxu / Tuaxy''; , ''Ubyx''; russian: Убыхи; tr, Ubıhlar / Vubıhlar) are one of the twelve Circassian tribes, representing one of the twelve stars on the green-and-gold Circassian flag. Along wi ...
,
Chechens The Chechens (; ce, Нохчий, , Old Chechen: Нахчой, ''Naxçoy''), historically also known as ''Kisti'' and ''Durdzuks'', are a Northeast Caucasian ethnic group of the Nakh peoples native to the North Caucasus in Eastern Europe. "Europ ...
, and Dagestanis as the
Tsars Tsar ( or ), also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar'', is a title used by East and South Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word ''caesar'', which was intended to mean "emperor" in the European medieval sense of the ter ...
sought to expand. Russian control of the
Georgian Military Road The Georgian Military Road or Georgian Military Highway (, 'sakartvelos samkhedro gza'' , os, Арвыкомы фæндаг 'Arvykomy fændag'' is the historic name for a major route through the Caucasus from Georgia to Russia. Alternative r ...
in the center divided the Caucasian War into the
Russo-Circassian War The Russo-Circassian War ( ady, Урыс-адыгэ зауэ, translit=Wurıs-adığə zawə; ; 1763–1864; also known as the Russian Invasion of Circassia) was the invasion of Circassia by Russia, starting in July 17, 1763 ( O.S) with the Ru ...
in the west and the conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan in the east. Other territories of the Caucasus (comprising contemporary eastern
Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States Georgia may also refer to: Places Historical states and entities * Related to the ...
, southern Dagestan,
Armenia Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...
and
Azerbaijan Azerbaijan (, ; az, Azərbaycan ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, , also sometimes officially called the Azerbaijan Republic is a transcontinental country located at the boundary of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is a part of th ...
) were incorporated into the Russian Empire at various times in the 19th century as a result of Russian wars with
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
. The remaining part, western Georgia, was taken by the Russians from the
Ottomans The Ottoman Turks ( tr, Osmanlı Türkleri), were the Turkic founding and sociopolitically the most dominant ethnic group of the Ottoman Empire ( 1299/1302–1922). Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks remains scarce, ...
during the same period.


Causes


History

The war took place during the administrations of three successive Russian
Tsar Tsar ( or ), also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar'', is a title used by East Slavs, East and South Slavs, South Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word ''Caesar (title), caesar'', which was intended to mean "emperor" i ...
s: Alexander I (reigned 1801–1825), Nicholas I (1825–1855), and Alexander II (1855–1881). The leading Russian commanders included
Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov (russian: Алексе́й Петро́вич Ермо́лов, p=jɪrˈmoləf; – ) was a Russian Imperial general of the 19th century who commanded Russian troops in the Caucasian War. He served in all the Ru ...
in 1816–1827,
Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov Prince Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov (russian: Князь Михаи́л Семёнович Воронцо́в, tr. ; ) was a Russian nobleman and field-marshal, renowned for his success in the Napoleonic wars and most famous for his participati ...
in 1844–1853, and
Aleksandr Baryatinskiy Prince Aleksandr Ivanovich Baryatinsky (russian: Алекса́ндр Ива́нович Баря́тинский, tr. ; – 9 March 1879) was a Russian General and Field Marshal (from 1859), Prince, governor of the Caucasus. Early life a ...
in 1853–1856. The famous Russian writer
Leo Tolstoy Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...
, who gained much of his knowledge and experience of war for his book ''War and Peace'' from these encounters, took part in the hostilities. The Russian poet
Alexander Pushkin Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (; rus, links=no, Александр Сергеевич ПушкинIn pre-Revolutionary script, his name was written ., r=Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin, p=ɐlʲɪkˈsandr sʲɪrˈɡʲe(j)ɪvʲɪtɕ ˈpuʂkʲɪn, ...
referred to the war in his Byronic poem "The Prisoner of the Caucasus" (Russian: Кавказский пленник; ''Kavkazskij plennik''), written in 1821.
Mikhail Lermontov Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (; russian: Михаи́л Ю́рьевич Ле́рмонтов, p=mʲɪxɐˈil ˈjurʲjɪvʲɪtɕ ˈlʲɛrməntəf; – ) was a Russian Romantic writer, poet and painter, sometimes called "the poet of the Caucas ...
, often referred to as "the poet of the Caucasus", participated in the battle near the river Valerik which inspired him to write the poem of the same name of the river dedicated to this event. In general, the Russian armies that served in the Caucasian wars were very eclectic; as well as ethnic Russians from various parts of the Russian empire they included
Cossacks The Cossacks , es, cosaco , et, Kasakad, cazacii , fi, Kasakat, cazacii , french: cosaques , hu, kozákok, cazacii , it, cosacchi , orv, коза́ки, pl, Kozacy , pt, cossacos , ro, cazaci , russian: казаки́ or ...
,
Armenians Armenians ( hy, հայեր, ''hayer'' ) are an ethnic group native to the Armenian highlands of Western Asia. Armenians constitute the main population of Armenia and the ''de facto'' independent Artsakh. There is a wide-ranging diaspora ...
,
Georgians The Georgians, or Kartvelians (; ka, ქართველები, tr, ), are a nation and indigenous Caucasian ethnic group native to Georgia and the South Caucasus. Georgian diaspora communities are also present throughout Russia, Turkey, G ...
,
Caucasus Greeks The Caucasus Greeks ( el, Έλληνες του Καυκάσου or more commonly , tr, Kafkas Rum), also known as the Greeks of Transcaucasia and Russian Asia Minor, are the ethnic Greeks of the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia in what is now ...
,
Ossetians The Ossetians or Ossetes (, ; os, ир, ирæттæ / дигорӕ, дигорӕнттӕ, translit= ir, irættæ / digoræ, digorænttæ, label=Ossetic) are an Iranian ethnic group who are indigenous to Ossetia, a region situated across the no ...
, and even soldiers of Muslim background like
Tatars The Tatars ()Tatar
in the Collins English Dictionary
is an umbrella term for different
,
Bashkirs , native_name_lang = bak , flag = File:Bashkirs of Baymak rayon.jpg , flag_caption = Bashkirs of Baymak in traditional dress , image = , caption = , population = approx. 2 million , popplace ...
,
Kazakhs The Kazakhs (also spelled Qazaqs; Kazakh: , , , , , ; the English name is transliterated from Russian; russian: казахи) are a Turkic-speaking ethnic group native to northern parts of Central Asia, chiefly Kazakhstan, but also parts o ...
,
Uyghurs The Uyghurs; ; ; ; zh, s=, t=, p=Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: ( ), alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghur ...
, Turkmen and even some Caucasian Muslim tribes who sided with the Russians against fellow Muslims of Caucasus. Muslim soldiers of
Imperial Russian Army The Imperial Russian Army (russian: Ру́сская импера́торская а́рмия, tr. ) was the armed land force of the Russian Empire, active from around 1721 to the Russian Revolution of 1917. In the early 1850s, the Russian Ar ...
had played some parts on religious discussion and wooing allies for Russia against their fellow Muslim brethren in the Caucasus. The Russian invasion encountered fierce resistance. The first period of the invasion ended coincidentally with the death of Alexander I and the
Decembrist Revolt The Decembrist Revolt ( ru , Восстание декабристов, translit = Vosstaniye dekabristov , translation = Uprising of the Decembrists) took place in Russia on , during the interregnum following the sudden death of Emperor Al ...
in 1825. It achieved surprisingly little success, especially compared with the then recent Russian victory over the "Grande Armée" of
Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
in 1812. Between 1825 and 1833, little military activity took place in the Caucasus against the native North Caucasians as wars with Turkey (1828/1829) and with
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
(1826–1828) occupied the Russians. After considerable successes in both wars, Russia resumed fighting in the Caucasus against the various rebelling native ethnic groups in the North Caucasus, and that was the start of the Caucasian genocide committed by Russians, most of the terminated people were from the Circassian nation. Russian units again met resistance, notably led by
Ghazi Mollah Qazi Mullah (Russian: Кази-Мулла, ''Kazi-Mulla'', 1793–1832) was an Islamic scholar and ascetic, who was the first Imam of the Caucasian Imamate (from 1828 to 1832). He was a staunch ally of Imam Shamil. He promoted the Sacred Law of ...
,
Gamzat-bek Gamzat-bek ( Avar: ХIамзат Бек, Chechen: Хьамзат Бек, ''Гамзат-бек'' in Russian), Hamza-Bek, Hamza Bek ibn Ali Iskandar Bek al-Hutsali (1789 — October 1(September 19), 1834) was the second imam of the Caucasian Imama ...
, and
Hadji Murad Hadji Murad (russian: Хаджи-Мурат, av, XӀажи Мурад; 1818 – April 23, N.S. May 5, 1852) was an important North Caucasian Avar leader during the resistance of the peoples of Dagestan and Chechnya in 1811–1864 against t ...
.
Imam Shamil Imam Shamil ( av, Шейх Шамил, Şeyx Şamil; ar, الشيخ شامل; russian: Имам Шамиль; 26 June 1797 – 4 February 1871) was the political, military, and spiritual leader of North Caucasian resistance to Imperial Russia in ...
followed them. He led the mountaineers from 1834 until his capture by
Dmitry Milyutin Count Dmitry Alekseyevich Milyutin ( rus, Граф Дми́трий Алексе́евич Милю́тин, tr. ; 28 June 1816, Moscow – 25 January 1912, Simeiz near Yalta) was Minister of War (1861–81) and the last Field Marshal of I ...
in 1859. In 1843, Shamil launched a sweeping offensive aimed at the Russian outposts in Avaria. On 28 August 1843, 10,000 men converged, from three different directions, on a Russian column in Untsukul, killing 486 men. In the next four weeks,
Shamil Shamil (Arabic: شَامِل ''shāmil'') is a lesser common masculine Arabic name. The name is usually from the adjective which have several correlated meanings from the Arabic "complete, comprehensive, universal" but could also mean "embodying, pr ...
captured every Russian outpost in Avaria except one, exacting over 2,000 casualties on the Russian defenders. He feigned an invasion north to capture a key chokepoint at the convergence of the Avar and Kazi-Kumukh rivers. In 1845, Shamil's forces achieved their most dramatic success when they withstood a major Russian offensive led by
Prince Vorontsov Prince Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov (russian: Князь Михаи́л Семёнович Воронцо́в, tr. ; ) was a Russian nobleman and field-marshal, renowned for his success in the Napoleonic wars and most famous for his participati ...
. During the
Crimean War The Crimean War, , was fought from October 1853 to February 1856 between Russia and an ultimately victorious alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom and Piedmont-Sardinia. Geopolitical causes of the war included the de ...
of 1853–1856, the Russians brokered a truce with Shamil, but hostilities resumed in 1855. Warfare in the Caucasus finally ended between 1856 and 1859, when a 250,000 strong army under General Baryatinsky broke the mountaineers' resistance. The war in the Eastern part of the North Caucasus ended in 1859; the Russians captured Shamil, forced him to surrender, to swear allegiance to the Tsar, and then exiled him to Central Russia. However, the war in the Western part of the North Caucasus resumed with the Circassians (i.e. Adyghe, but the term is often used to include their Abkhaz–Abaza kin as well) resuming the fight. A manifesto of Tsar Alexander II declared hostilities at an end on June 2 (May 21 OS), 1864. Among post-war events, a tragic page in the history of the
indigenous people Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...
s of the North Caucasus (especially the Circassians), was
Muhajir Muhajir or Mohajir ( ar, مهاجر, '; pl. , ') is an Arabic word meaning ''migrant'' (see immigration and emigration) which is also used in other languages spoken by Muslims, including English. In English, this term and its derivatives may refer ...
ism, or
population transfer Population transfer or resettlement is a type of mass migration, often imposed by state policy or international authority and most frequently on the basis of ethnicity or religion but also due to economic development. Banishment or exile is a ...
of the Muslim population to the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
.


Aftermath

Many Circassians were forced to emigrate and leave their home to the Ottoman Empire and to a lesser degree Persia. The genocide of
Terek Cossacks The Terek Cossack Host (russian: Терское казачье войско, ''Terskoye kazach'ye voysko'') was a Cossack host created in 1577 from free Cossacks who resettled from the Volga to the Terek River. The local aboriginal Terek Cossack ...
during the Civil war was a continuation of the genocide of Circassians, former allies of the Russian Empire who supported the Communists. Most of the historical Circassian territories were historically distributed amongst the allies of the Russian Empire, such as certain
Vainakh The Nakh peoples, also known as ''Vainakh peoples'' (Chechen/Ingush: , apparently derived from Chechen , Ingush "our people"; also Chechen-Ingush), are a group of Caucasian peoples identified by their use of the Nakh languages and other cult ...
and Turkic families. However, many of those new settlers were exiled by Stalin in 1944, and some of those lands was redistributed, this time, to Georgians and Ossetians. Though many of the exiled people have returned, many lands, granted to them by the Russian empire, are still inhabited by Ossetians. The Georgians left all the lands given to them as they did not consider it theirs since the land was not within Georgia itself, but in neighbouring Russia. This still generates tensions (
East Prigorodny Conflict The East Prigorodny conflict, also referred to as the Ossetian–Ingush conflict, was an inter-ethnic conflict in the eastern part of the Prigorodny District in the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania, which started in 1989 and developed, in 1992 ...
) in the former war theaters of the Caucasian war. Today, there are three titular Circassian republics in Russia: Adygea, Kabardino-Balkaria, and Karachayevo-Cherkessia. Other historical Circassian territories such as Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai, and southwestern Rostov Oblast have much smaller communities of Circassians. The diaspora in Syria is repatriating to Russia. Circassians from
Kosovo Kosovo ( sq, Kosova or ; sr-Cyrl, Косово ), officially the Republic of Kosovo ( sq, Republika e Kosovës, links=no; sr, Република Косово, Republika Kosovo, links=no), is a partially recognised state in Southeast Euro ...
also returned to Russia after the civil war in Kosovo. According to one source, the population in Greater and Lesser Kabarda decreased from 350,000, before the war, to 50,000 by 1818. According to another version, in 1790 the population was 200,000 people and in 1830 30,000 people. As a percentage of the total population of the North Caucasus, the number of the remaining Circassians was 40% (1795), 30% (1835) and 25% (1858). Similarly: Chechens 9%, 10% and 8.5%; Avars 11%, 7% and 2%; Dargins 9.5%, 7.3% and 5.8%; Lezghins 4.4%, 3.6% and 3.9% .Кабузан В.М. Население Северного Кавказа в XIX - XX веках. - СПб., 1996. С.145.


Gallery

Image:Karte_des_Kaukasischen_Isthmus_-_Entworfen_und_gezeichnet_von_J-Grassl_-_1856.jpg, ''Map of the Caucasus isthmus''. Created and drawn by J. Grassl, 1856. Image:Georgianroad.jpg, Construction of the
Georgian Military Road The Georgian Military Road or Georgian Military Highway (, 'sakartvelos samkhedro gza'' , os, Арвыкомы фæндаг 'Arvykomy fændag'' is the historic name for a major route through the Caucasus from Georgia to Russia. Alternative r ...
through disputed territories was a key factor in the eventual Russian success File:Sturm aul Gimry 1891.jpg, ''Assault of Gimry'', by Franz Alekseyevich Roubaud File:Штурм аула Салта.jpg, Caucasian tribesmen fight against the
Cossacks The Cossacks , es, cosaco , et, Kasakad, cazacii , fi, Kasakat, cazacii , french: cosaques , hu, kozákok, cazacii , it, cosacchi , orv, коза́ки, pl, Kozacy , pt, cossacos , ro, cazaci , russian: казаки́ or ...
, 1847 File:Storm of the fortress of Akhty 1848.jpg, Storm of the fortress of Akhty in 1848 File:Theodor Horschelt Tscherkessen.jpg, Circassians by Theodor Horschelt File:Imam Shamil surrendered to Count Baryatinsky on August 25, 1859 by Kivshenko, Alexei Danilovich.jpg, Imam Shamil surrendered to Count Baryatinsky on August 25, 1859 Image:Pyotr Nikolayevich Gruzinsky - The mountaineers leave the aul.jpg, ''Mountaineers leave the
aul An aul (; ce, oil; russian: аул) is a type of fortified village or town found throughout the Caucasus mountains and Central Asia. The word itself is of Turkic origin and simply means ''village'' in many Turkic languages. Auyl ( kk, Ауы ...
'', by
Pyotr Gruzinsky Prince Pyotr Nikolayevich Gruzinsky ( ka, პეტრე ნიკოლოზის ძე გრუზინსკი; russian: Пётр Николаевич Грузинский; literally "Peter of Georgia"; 1837–1892) was a Georgian ...
Image:Russian medal for subjugation of Western Caucasus 1859-1864.PNG, Russian medal for subjugation of Western Caucasus 1859–1864 File:Мюрид с наибским знаменем.jpg, Murid with the naib banner, by Theodor Horschelt 1858—1861. File:Feldwebel_Vasily_Ivanov.jpg, ''Officer of the Separate Caucasian сorps'' File:Артиллерист фейервейкер Отдельного кавказского корпуса.jpg, ''Artillery fireworker of the Separate Caucasian сorps'' File:Oskar Schmerling. Caucasian Soldier Riding at a Gallop.jpg, Caucasian horseman warrior, by Oskar Schmerling 1893. File:Бой_с_Чеченцами_под_Акбулат-Юртом.jpg, Fight with the сhechens under Akbulat-Urt, by D. Koenig (1849) File:Наибы Шамиля.jpg, Naibs of Imam Shamil, by
Giorgio Corradini Giorgio may refer to: * Castel Giorgio, ''comune'' in Umbria, Italy * Giorgio (name), an Italian given name and surname * Giorgio Moroder, or Giorgio, Italian record producer ** ''Giorgio'' (album), an album by Giorgio Moroder * "Giorgio" (son ...
19th century. File:Черкес_стреляет_из_винтовки_с_коня_на_скаку.jpg, Circassian warrior, by
Alfred Kowalski Alfred Jan Maksymilian Kowalski (Alfred ''Wierusz''-Kowalski; 11 October 184916 February 1915) was a Polish painter and representative of the Munich School. Life He was born on 11 October 1849 in Suwałki to father Teofil Kowalski of the Wieruszo ...
, 1895. File:Caucasian rider in fight with russian soldier (1892).jpg, Caucasian rider in fight with Russian soldier, by Roubaud. F. (1892) File:Виллевальде, Богдан Павлович. Охотники Ширванского полка на Гунибе.jpg, Soldiers of the Shirvan regiment on Gunib, by
Bogdan Willewalde Bogdan Pavlovich Willewalde (russian: Богдан Павлович Виллевальде, german: link=no, Gottfried Willewalde; January 12, 1819, Pavlovsk, Saint Petersburg – March 24, 1903, Dresden) was a Russian Imperial artist, academic, ...
(1870). File:Pyotr Nikolayevich Gruzinsky. Assault of Gunib.jpg, Assault of Gunib, by
Pyotr Gruzinsky Prince Pyotr Nikolayevich Gruzinsky ( ka, პეტრე ნიკოლოზის ძე გრუზინსკი; russian: Пётр Николаевич Грузинский; literally "Peter of Georgia"; 1837–1892) was a Georgian ...
1862. File:Теодор_Горшельт._Штурм_укреплений_Гуниба._1867.jpg, Battle of Ghunib, by Theodor Horschelt 1867. File:Horschelt. Surrender of Shamil. 1863.jpg, ''Capture of Shamil'', painting by Theodor Horschelt 1859.


See also

* Russian conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan *
Russo-Circassian War The Russo-Circassian War ( ady, Урыс-адыгэ зауэ, translit=Wurıs-adığə zawə; ; 1763–1864; also known as the Russian Invasion of Circassia) was the invasion of Circassia by Russia, starting in July 17, 1763 ( O.S) with the Ru ...


References


Further reading

* * Pokrovsky N. I. Caucasian Wars and the Imamate of Shamil / Foreword. N. N. Pokrovsky, introduction. and approx. V. G. Gadzhiev. — M.: ROSSPEN, 2000. — 511 p. — .
Bell, J.S ''Journal of a residence in Circassia during the years 1837, 1838, and 1839'' (English)
* Dubrovin, N. russian: (Дубровин Н.Ф.) ''История войны и владычества русских на Кавказе, volumes 4–6''. SPb, 1886–88. * Kaziev, Shapi
''Imam Shamil'', Molodaya Gvardiya publishers: Moscow, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2010
* Kaziev, Shapi. Akhoulgo. ''Caucasian War of 19th century''.
The historical novel ''Epoch'' Publishing house. Makhachkala, 2008.
* Gammer, Moshe. Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan. Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1994. 247 p. — . {{Authority control Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917) History of the North Caucasus 19th-century conflicts 19th-century military history of the Russian Empire 19th century in Georgia (country) Military history of Georgia (country) Wars involving Chechnya Wars involving the Circassians Wars involving the Russian Empire Jihad