History
CQDs were first discovered by Xu et al. in 2004 accidentally during the purification ofProperties of CQDs
The structures and components of CQDs determine their diverse properties. Many carboxyl moieties on the CQD surface impart excellent solubility in water and biocompatibility. Such surface moieties enable CQDs to serve as proton conducting nanoparticles. CQDs are also suitable for chemical modification and surface passivation with various organic, polymeric, inorganic or biological materials. By surface passivation, the fluorescence properties as well as physical properties of CQDs are enhanced. Recently, it has been discovered that amine and hydroxamic acid functionalized CD can produce tricolor (green, yellow and red) emission when introduced with different pH environment and this tricolor emission can be preserved in ORMOSIL film matrix. A paper published in 2019 showed that CQD can resist temperatures as high as 800 °C, paving way for applications of CQD in high temperature environments. Based on carbon, CQDs possess such properties as good conductivity, benign chemical composition, photochemical and thermal stability.Synthesis of CQDs
Synthetic methods for CQDs are roughly divided into two categories, "top-down" and "bottom-up" routes. These can be achieved via chemical, electrochemical or physical techniques. The CQDs obtained could be optimized during preparation or post-treatment. Modification of CQDs is also very important to get good surface properties which are essential for solubility and selected applications.Synthetic methods
"Top-down" synthetic route refers to breaking down larger carbon structures such asSize control
In addition to post-treatment, controlling the size of CQDs during the preparing process is also widely used. For instance, Zhu et al. reported hydrophilic CQDs through impregnation of citric acid precursor. After pyrolyzing CQDs at 300 °C for 2 hours in air, then removing silica, followed by dialysis, they prepared CQDs with a uniform size of 1.5–2.5 nm which showed low toxicity, excellent luminescence, good photostability, and up-conversion properties.Modification
Being a new type of fluorescent nanoparticles, applications of CQD lie in the field of bioimaging and biosensing due to their biological and environmental friendly composition and excellent biocompatibility. In order to survive the competition with conventional semiconductor quantum dots, a high quantum yield should be achieved. Although a good example of CQDs with ~80% quantum yield was synthesized, most of the quantum dots synthesized have a quantum yield below 10% so far. Surface-passivation and doping methods for modifications are usually applied for improving quantum yield. To prevent surfaces of CQDs from being polluted by their environment, surface passivation is performed to alleviate the detrimental influence of surface contamination on their optical properties. A thin insulating layer is formed to achieve surface passivation via the attachment of polymeric materials on CQDs surface treated by acid. In addition to surface passivation, doping is also a common method used to tune the properties of CQDs. Various doping methods with elements such as N, S, P have been demonstrated for tuning the properties of CQDs, among which N doping is the most common way due to its great ability in improving the photo luminescence emissions. The mechanisms by which Nitrogen doping enhances the fluorescence quantum yield of CQDs, as well as the structure of heavily N-doped CDs, are very debated issues in the literature. Zhou et al. applied XANES and XEOL in investigating the electronic structure and luminescence mechanism in their electrochemically produced carbon QDS and found that N doping is almost certainly responsible for the blue luminescence. Synthesis of new nanocomposites based on CDs have been reported with unusual properties. For example, a new nanocomposite has been designed by using of CDs and magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles as precursors with nanozymetic activity.Applications
Bioimaging
CQDs can be used for bioimaging due to their fluorescence emissions and biocompatibility. By injecting solvents containing CQDs into a living body, images in vivo can be obtained for detection or diagnosis purposes. One example is that organic dye-conjugated CQDs could be used as an effective fluorescent probes for H2S. The presence of H2S could tune the blue emission of the organic dye-conjugated CQDs to green. So by using a fluorescence microscope, the organic dye-conjugated CQDs were able to visualize changes in physiologically relevant levels of H2S. Another example can be dual-mode bioimaging using their highly accessible surface functional groups to conjugate them ''via'' EDC-NHS chemistry. Saladino ''et al''. demonstrated the concept using MW-assisted synthesized nitrogen-doped excitation-independent CQDs. These were conjugated with rhodium nanoparticles – X-ray fluorescence contrast agents – leading to dual-mode nanohybrids with both optical and X-ray fluorescent properties. Moreover, the conjugation process not only accounts for dual-mode bioimaging but also passivates the rhodium nanoparticle surface, resulting in reduced cytotoxicity.Sensing
CQDs were also applied in biosensing as biosensor carriers for their flexibility in modification, high solubility in water, nontoxicity, good photostability, and excellent biocompatibility. The biosensors based on CQD and CQs-based materials could be used for visual monitoring of cellular copper, glucose, pH, trace levels of H2O2 and nucleic acid. A general example is about nucleic acid lateral flow assays. The discriminating tags on the amplicons are recognized by their respective antibodies and fluorescence signals provided by the attached CQDs. More generally, the fluorescence of CQDs efficiently responds to pH, local polarity, and to the presence of metal ions in solution, which further expands their potential for nanosensing applications, for instance in the analysis of pollutants.Drug delivery
The nontoxicity and biocompatibility of CQDs enable them with broad applications in biomedicine as drug carriers, fluorescent tracers as well as controlling drug release. This is exemplified by the use of CQDs as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy to destroy cancer cells.Catalysis
The flexibility of functionalization with various groups CQDs makes them possible to absorb lights of different wavelengths, which offers good opportunities for applications in photocatalysis. CQDs-modified P25 TiO2 composites exhibited improved photocatalytic H2 evolution under irradiation with UV-Vis. The CQDs serve as a reservoir for electrons to improve the efficiency of separating of the electron-hole pairs of P25. In the recent times, metal-free CQDs have been found to improve the kinetics of hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), making CQDs a sustainable choice for catalysis.Optronics
CQDs possess the potential in serving as materials forRocket fuels
Recently, CQDs have been employed in hybrid rocket fuels.Fingerprint recovery
CQDs are used for the enhancement of latent fingerprints.See also
*References
Further reading
* * * * * * {{cite journal , last1=Kim , first1=Jinhyun , last2=Lee , first2=Sahng Ha , last3=Tieves , first3=Florian , last4=Choi , first4=Da Som , last5=Hollmann , first5=Frank , last6=Paul , first6=Caroline E. , last7=Park , first7=Chan Beum , title=Biocatalytic C=C Bond Reduction through Carbon Nanodot‐Sensitized Regeneration of NADH Analogues , journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition , date=15 October 2018 , volume=57 , issue=42 , pages=13825–13828 , doi=10.1002/anie.201804409, pmid=30062834 , s2cid=51870319 , url=http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:240f014a-a6f2-4225-866e-79582f481bca Quantum dots Allotropes of carbon