![Hasselblad 500 CM](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Hasselblad_500_CM.jpg)
A camera is an
optical
Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultravio ...
instrument that can capture an
image. Most cameras can capture 2D images, with some more advanced models being able to capture 3D images. At a basic level, most cameras consist of sealed boxes (the camera body), with a small hole (the
aperture
In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels. More specifically, the aperture and focal length of an optical system determine the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane.
An ...
) that allows
light
Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 te ...
to pass through in order to capture an image on a light-sensitive surface (usually a
digital sensor
A digital sensor is an electronic or electrochemical sensor, where data is digitally converted and transmitted. Sensors are often used for analytical measurements, e.g. the measurement of chemical and physical properties of liquids. Typical measure ...
or
photographic film). Cameras have various mechanisms to control how the light falls onto the light-sensitive surface.
Lens
A lens is a transmissive optical device which focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens consists of a single piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses (''elements ...
es focus the light entering the camera, and the aperture can be narrowed or widened. A
shutter mechanism determines the amount of time the
photosensitive Photosensitivity is the amount to which an object reacts upon receiving photons, especially visible light. In medicine, the term is principally used for abnormal reactions of the skin, and two types are distinguished, photoallergy and phototoxicit ...
surface is exposed to the light.
The still image camera is the main instrument in the art of
photography
Photography is the art, application, and practice of creating durable images by recording light, either electronically by means of an image sensor, or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film. It is employe ...
. Captured images may be reproduced later as part of the process of photography,
digital imaging
Digital imaging or digital image acquisition is the creation of a digital representation of the visual characteristics of an object, such as a physical scene or the interior structure of an object. The term is often assumed to imply or include t ...
, or
photographic printing
Photographic printing is the process of producing a final image on paper for viewing, using chemically sensitized paper. The paper is exposed to a photographic negative, a positive transparency (or ''slide''), or a digital image file projected ...
. Similar artistic fields in the moving-image camera domain are film,
videography
Videography is the process of capturing moving images on electronic media (e.g., videotape, direct to disk recording, or solid state storage) and even streaming media. The term includes methods of video production and post-production. It used ...
, and
cinematography
Cinematography (from ancient Greek κίνημα, ''kìnema'' "movement" and γράφειν, ''gràphein'' "to write") is the art of motion picture (and more recently, electronic video camera) photography.
Cinematographers use a lens to foc ...
.
The word ''camera'' comes from ''
camera obscura
A camera obscura (; ) is a darkened room with a small hole or lens at one side through which an image is projected onto a wall or table opposite the hole.
''Camera obscura'' can also refer to analogous constructions such as a box or tent in w ...
'', the Latin name of the original device for projecting a 2D image onto a flat surface (literally translated to "dark chamber"). The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura. The
first permanent photograph was made in 1825 by
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce
Joseph is a common male given name, derived from the Hebrew Yosef (יוֹסֵף). "Joseph" is used, along with "Josef", mostly in English, French and partially German languages. This spelling is also found as a variant in the languages of the mo ...
.
Mechanics
![Reflex camera simple labels](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Reflex_camera_simple_labels.svg)
Most cameras capture light from the
visible spectrum
The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called ''visible light'' or simply light. A typical human eye will respond to wa ...
, while specialized cameras capture other portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies.
The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging fro ...
, such as
infrared
Infrared (IR), sometimes called infrared light, is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than those of visible light. It is therefore invisible to the human eye. IR is generally understood to encompass wavelengths from around ...
.
All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box through a
converging or convex lens and an image is recorded on a light-sensitive medium. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light enters the camera.
Most cameras also have a viewfinder, which shows the scene to be recorded, along with means to adjust various combinations of
focus
Focus, or its plural form foci may refer to:
Arts
* Focus or Focus Festival, former name of the Adelaide Fringe arts festival in South Australia Film
*''Focus'', a 1962 TV film starring James Whitmore
* ''Focus'' (2001 film), a 2001 film based ...
, aperture and
shutter speed.
Exposure control
Aperture
![Lenses with different apertures](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Lenses_with_different_apertures.jpg)
Light enters the camera through an aperture, an opening adjusted by overlapping plates called the aperture ring.
[Laney, Dawn A. ..BA, MS, CGC, CCRC. “Camera Technologies.” ''Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science'', June 2020. Accessed 6 February 2022.] Typically located in the lens,
this opening can be widened or narrowed to alter the amount of light that strikes the film or sensor.
The size of the aperture can be set manually, by rotating the lens or adjusting a dial, or automatically based on readings from an internal light meter.
As the aperture is adjusted, the opening expands and contracts in increments called
''f-stops''.
The smaller the f-stop, the more light is allowed to enter the lens, increasing the exposure. Typically, f-stops range from 1.4 to 32 in standard increments: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, and 32.
The light entering the camera is halved with each increasing increment.
The wider opening at lower f-stops narrows the range of focus so the background is blurry while the foreground is in focus. This
depth of field increases as the aperture closes. A narrow aperture results in a high depth of field, meaning that objects at many different distances from the camera will appear to be in focus.
What is acceptably in focus is determined by the
circle of confusion
In optics, a circle of confusion (CoC) is an optical spot caused by a cone of light rays from a lens not coming to a perfect focus when imaging a point source. It is also known as disk of confusion, circle of indistinctness, blur circle, or ...
, the photographic technique, the equipment in use and the degree of magnification expected of the final image.
Shutter
The shutter, along with the aperture, is one of two ways to control the amount of light entering the camera. The
shutter determines the duration that the light-sensitive surface is exposed to light. The shutter opens, light enters the camera and exposes the film or sensor to light, and then the shutter closes.
There are two types of mechanical shutters: the leaf-type shutter and the focal-plane shutter. The leaf-type uses a circular iris diaphragm maintained under spring tension inside or just behind the lens that rapidly opens and closes when the shutter is released.
![Focal-plane shutter](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Focal-plane_shutter.jpg)
More commonly, a
focal-plane shutter
In camera design, a focal-plane shutter (FPS) is a type of photographic shutter that is positioned immediately in front of the focal plane of the camera, that is, right in front of the photographic film or image sensor.
Two-curtain shutters ...
is used.
This shutter operates close to the film plane and employs metal plates or cloth curtains with an opening that passes across the light-sensitive surface. The curtains or plates have an opening that is pulled across the film plane during exposure. The focal-plane shutter is typically used in single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, since covering the film (rather than blocking the light passing through the lens) allows the photographer to view the image through the lens at all times, except during the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates removing the lens from a loaded camera, as many SLRs have interchangeable lenses.
A
digital camera
A digital camera is a camera that captures photographs in digital memory. Most cameras produced today are digital, largely replacing those that capture images on photographic film. Digital cameras are now widely incorporated into mobile devices ...
may use a mechanical or electronic shutter, the latter of which is common in smartphone cameras. Electronic shutters either record data from the entire sensor at the same time (a global shutter) or record the data line by line across the sensor (a rolling shutter).
In movie cameras, a rotary shutter opens and closes in sync with the advancement of each frame of film.
The duration for which the shutter is open is called the ''
shutter speed'' or ''exposure time''. Typical exposure times can range from one second to 1/1,000 of a second, though longer and shorter durations are not uncommon. In the early stages of photography, exposures were often several minutes long. These long exposure times often resulted in blurry images, as a single object is recorded in multiple places across a single image for the duration of the exposure. To prevent this, shorter exposure times can be used. Very short exposure times can capture fast-moving action and eliminate motion blur.
However, shorter exposure times require more light to produce a properly exposed image, so shortening the exposure time is not always possible.
Like aperture settings, exposure times increment in powers of two. The two settings determine the exposure value (EV), a measure of how much light is recorded during the exposure. There is a direct relationship between the exposure times and aperture settings so that if the exposure time is lengthened one step, but the aperture opening is also narrowed one step, then the amount of light that contacts the film or sensor is the same.
Metering
![Sekonic L-358 Flash Master](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Sekonic_L-358_Flash_Master.jpg)
In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is measured using a built-in light meter or exposure meter. Taken through the lens (called '' metering''), these readings are taken using a panel of light-sensitive
semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material which has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity falls as its temperature rises; metals behave in the opposite way. ...
s.
They are used to calculate optimal exposure settings. These settings are typically determined automatically as the reading is used by the camera's
microprocessor
A microprocessor is a computer processor where the data processing logic and control is included on a single integrated circuit, or a small number of integrated circuits. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circ ...
. The reading from the light meter is incorporated with aperture settings, exposure times, and film or sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure.
Light meter
A light meter is a device used to measure the amount of light. In photography, a light meter (more correctly an exposure meter) is used to determine the proper exposure (photography), exposure for a photograph. The meter will include either a Di ...
s typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering—weighing the center of the frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the differences in light across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the photographer to take a light reading at a specific point within the image (spot metering).
Lens
The
lens
A lens is a transmissive optical device which focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens consists of a single piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses (''elements ...
of a camera captures light from the subject and focuses it on the sensor. The design and manufacturing of the lens are critical to photo quality. A technological revolution in camera design during the 19th century modernized optical glass manufacturing and lens design. This contributed to the modern manufacturing processes of a wide range of optical instruments such as reading glasses and microscopes. Pioneering companies include
Zeiss and Leitz.
Camera lenses are made in a wide range of focal lengths, such as extreme
wide angle Wide angle may refer to:
* Wide-angle lens, type of camera lens
* ''Wide Angle'' (TV series), television series
* ''Wide Angle'', 1999 album by Hybrid
* ''Wide Angles'', 2003 album by Michael Brecker
* Wide-angle X-ray scattering
In X-ray crystal ...
, standard, and medium
telephoto
A telephoto lens, in photography and cinematography, is a specific type of a long-focus lens in which the physical length of the lens is shorter than the focal length. This is achieved by incorporating a special lens group known as a ''telephoto ...
. Lenses either have a fixed focal length (
prime lens
In film and photography, a prime lens is a fixed focal length photographic lens (as opposed to a zoom lens), typically with a maximum aperture from f2.8 to f1.2. The term can also mean the primary lens in a combination lens system.
Confusion be ...
) or a variable focal length (
zoom lens). Each lens is best suited to certain types of photography. Extreme wide angles might be preferred for architecture due to their ability to capture a wide view of buildings. Standard lenses commonly have a wide aperture, and because of this, they are often used for street and documentary photography. The telephoto lens is useful in sports and wildlife but is more susceptible to camera shake, which might cause motion blur.
Focus
![Daisies-Focus](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Daisies-Focus.jpg)
Due to the optical properties of a
photographic lens
A camera lens (also known as photographic lens or photographic objective) is an optical lens or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera body and mechanism to make images of objects either on photographic film or on other media capab ...
, only objects within a limited range of distance from the camera will be reproduced clearly. The process of adjusting this range is known as changing the camera's focus. There are various ways to accurately focus a camera. The simplest cameras have
fixed focus
A photographic lens for which the focus is not adjustable is called a fixed-focus lens or sometimes focus-free. The focus is set at the time of lens design, and remains fixed. It is usually set to the hyperfocal distance, so that the depth of fie ...
and use a small aperture and wide-angle lens to ensure that everything within a certain range of distance from the lens, usually around 3 meters (10 ft.) to infinity, is in reasonable focus. Fixed focus cameras are usually inexpensive, such as single-use cameras. The camera can also have a limited focusing range or
scale-focus that is indicated on the camera body. The user will guess or calculate the distance to the subject and adjust the focus accordingly. On some cameras, this is indicated by symbols (head-and-shoulders; two people standing upright; one tree; mountains).
Rangefinder camera
A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with a rangefinder, typically a split-image rangefinder: a range-finding focusing mechanism allowing the photographer to measure the subject distance and take photographs that are in sharp focus. Most va ...
s allow the distance to objects to be measured employing a coupled parallax unit on top of the camera, allowing the focus to be set with accuracy. Single-lens reflex cameras allow the photographer to determine the focus and composition visually using the objective lens and a moving mirror to project the image onto a
ground glass
Ground glass is glass whose surface has been ground to produce a flat but rough (matte) finish, in which the glass is in small sharp fragments.
Ground glass surfaces have many applications, ranging from ornamentation on windows and table glassw ...
or plastic micro-prism screen.
Twin-lens reflex camera
A twin-lens reflex camera (TLR) is a type of camera with two objective lenses of the same focal length. One of the lenses is the photographic objective or "taking lens" (the lens that takes the picture), while the other is used for the viewfind ...
s use an objective lens and a focusing lens unit (usually identical to the objective lens) in a parallel body for composition and focus.
View camera
A view camera is a large-format camera in which the lens forms an inverted image on a ground-glass screen directly at the film plane. The image is viewed and then the glass screen is replaced with the film, and thus the film is exposed to exactly ...
s use a ground glass screen which is removed and replaced by either a photographic plate or a reusable holder containing
sheet film before exposure. Modern cameras often offer
autofocus
An autofocus (or AF) optical system uses a sensor, a control system and a motor to focus on an automatically or manually selected point or area. An electronic rangefinder has a display instead of the motor; the adjustment of the optical system ...
systems to focus the camera automatically by a variety of methods.
Experimental cameras such as the
planar Fourier capture array
A planar Fourier capture array (PFCA) is a tiny camera that requires no mirror, lens, focal length, or moving parts. It is composed of angle-sensitive pixels, which can be manufactured in unmodified CMOS processes.
Angle-sensitive pixels h ...
(PFCA) do not require focusing to take pictures. In conventional digital photography, lenses or mirrors map all of the light originating from a single point of an in-focus object to a single point at the sensor plane. Each pixel thus relates an independent piece of information about the far-away scene. In contrast, a PFCA does not have a lens or mirror, but each pixel has an idiosyncratic pair of diffraction gratings above it, allowing each pixel to likewise relate an independent piece of information (specifically, one component of the
2D Fourier transform) about the far-away scene. Together, complete scene information is captured, and images can be reconstructed by computation.
Some cameras support post-focusing. Post focusing refers to taking photos that are later focused on a computer. The camera uses many tiny lenses on the sensor to capture light from every
camera angle
The camera angle marks the specific location at which the movie camera or video camera is placed to take a shot. A scene may be shot from several camera angles simultaneously. This will give a different experience and sometimes emotion. The diff ...
of a scene, which is known as ''plenoptic technology''. A current
plenoptic camera
A light field camera, also known as a plenoptic camera, is a camera that captures information about the '' light field'' emanating from a scene; that is, the intensity of light in a scene, and also the precise direction that the light rays are ...
design has 40,000 lenses working together to grab the optimal picture.
Image capture on film
Traditional cameras capture light onto
photographic plates, or photographic film. Video and digital cameras use an electronic image sensor, usually a
charge-coupled device
A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an integrated circuit containing an array of linked, or coupled, capacitors. Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can transfer its electric charge to a neighboring capacitor. CCD sensors are a ...
(CCD) or a
CMOS sensor to capture images which can be transferred or stored in a
memory card
A memory card is an electronic data storage device used for storing digital information, typically using flash memory. These are commonly used in digital portable electronic devices. They allow adding memory to such devices using a card in a so ...
or other storage inside the camera for later playback or
processing
Processing is a free graphical library and integrated development environment (IDE) built for the electronic arts, new media art, and visual design communities with the purpose of teaching non-programmers the fundamentals of computer programming ...
.
A wide range of film and plate formats have been used by cameras. In the early history plate sizes were often specific for the make and model of cameras although there quickly developed some standardization for the more popular cameras. The introduction of
roll film
Roll film or rollfilm is any type of spool-wound photographic film protected from white light exposure by a paper backing. The term originated in contrast to sheet film. Confusingly, roll film was originally often referred to as "cartridge" film ...
drove the standardization process still further so that by the 1950s only a few standard roll films were in use. These included
120 films providing 8, 12 or 16 exposures, 220 films providing 16 or 24 exposures, 127 films providing 8 or 12 exposures (principally in
Brownie cameras) and 135 (
35mm film 35 mm may refer to:
* 135 film, a type of still photography format commonly referred to as 35 mm film
* 35 mm movie film, a type of motion picture film stock
* 35MM 35 mm may refer to:
* 135 film, a type of still photography format ...
) providing 12, 20 or 36 exposures – or up to 72 exposures in the
half-frame format or bulk cassettes for the
Leica Camera range.
For
cine camera
A movie camera (also known as a film camera and cine-camera) is a type of photographic camera that rapidly takes a sequence of photographs, either on an image sensor or onto film stock, in order to produce a moving image to project onto a movie sc ...
s, film 35mm wide and perforated with
sprocket holes was established as the standard format in the 1890s. It was used for nearly all film-based professional motion picture production. For amateur use, several smaller and therefore less expensive formats were introduced. 17.5mm film, created by splitting 35mm film, was one early amateur format, but
9.5mm film, introduced in Europe in 1922, and
16 mm film
16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film. 16 mm refers to the width of the film (about inch); other common film gauges include 8 and 35 mm. It is generally used for non-theatrical (e.g., industrial, educ ...
, introduced in the US in 1923, soon became the standards for "home movies" in their respective hemispheres. In 1932, the even more economical
8mm format was created by doubling the number of perforations in 16mm film, then splitting it, usually after exposure and processing. The
Super 8 format, still 8mm wide but with smaller perforations to make room for substantially larger
film frame
In filmmaking, video production, animation, and related fields, a frame is one of the many '' still images'' which compose the complete '' moving picture''. The term is derived from the historical development of film stock, in which the sequenti ...
s, was introduced in 1965.
Film speed (ISO)
Traditionally used to tell the camera the
film speed
Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relation ...
of the selected film on film cameras, film speed numbers are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's
gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. Film speed is usually measured via the
ISO 5800
Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relations ...
system. The higher the film speed number, the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower number, the film is less sensitive to light.
White balance
In digital cameras, there is electronic compensation for the
color temperature
Color temperature is the color of light emitted by an idealized opaque, non-reflective body at a particular temperature measured in kelvins. The color temperature scale is used to categorize the color of light emitted by other light sources ...
associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator's choice of
film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register the natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end—for example, white balancing to a blue object to obtain a warm color temperature.
Camera accessories
Flash
A
flash
Flash, flashes, or FLASH may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Fictional aliases
* Flash (DC Comics character), several DC Comics superheroes with super speed:
** Flash (Barry Allen)
** Flash (Jay Garrick)
** Wally West, the first Kid F ...
provides a short burst of bright light during exposure and is a commonly used artificial light source in photography. Most modern flash systems use a battery-powered high-voltage discharge through a gas-filled tube to generate bright light for a very short time (1/1,000 of a second or less).
Many flash units measure the light reflected from the flash to help determine the appropriate duration of the flash. When the flash is attached directly to the camera—typically in a slot at the top of the camera (the flash shoe or hot shoe) or through a cable—activating the shutter on the camera triggers the flash, and the camera's internal light meter can help determine the duration of the flash.
Additional flash equipment can include a
light diffuser, mount and stand, reflector,
soft box
A soft box is a type of photographic lighting device, one of a number of photographic soft light devices. All the various soft light types create even and diffused lightBrooks, David. ''How to Control and Use Photographic Lighting''. HPBooks, ...
, trigger and cord.
Other accessories
Accessories for cameras are mainly used for care, protection, special effects, and functions.
*
Lens hood
In photography, a lens hood or lens shade is a device used on the front end of a lens to block the Sun or other light source(s) to prevent glare and lens flare. Lens hoods may also be used to protect the lens from scratches and the elements witho ...
: used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source to prevent glare and lens flare (see also
matte box
In photography and videography, a matte box is a device attached to the end of a lens in order to prevent light leakage. It performs and mounts essentially the same as a lens hood, but usually includes adjustable fins called ''French flags''.
A ...
).
*
Lens cap
A lens cover or lens cap provides protection from scratches and minor collisions for camera and camcorder lenses. Lens covers come standard with most cameras and lenses. Some mobile camera phones include lens covers, such as the Sony Ericsson ...
: covers and protects the camera lens when not in use.
*
Lens adapter
In photography and videography, a lens adapter is a device that enables the use of camera and lens combinations from otherwise incompatible systems. The most simple lens adapter designs, passive lens adapters provide a secure physical connectio ...
: allows the use of lenses other than those for which the camera was designed.
*
Filter
Filter, filtering or filters may refer to:
Science and technology
Computing
* Filter (higher-order function), in functional programming
* Filter (software), a computer program to process a data stream
* Filter (video), a software component tha ...
: allows artificial colors or changes light density.
*
Lens extension tube: allows close focus in
macro photography.
* Care and protection: include camera case and cover, maintenance tools, and screen protector.
*
Camera monitor: provides an off-camera view of the composition with a brighter and more colorful screen, and typically exposes more advanced tools such as framing guides,
focus peaking
Focus peaking is a focusing aid in live preview or electronic viewfinder
An electronic viewfinder (EVF) is a camera viewfinder where the image captured by the lens is displayed on a small screen (usually LCD or OLED) which the photographer c ...
,
zebra stripes,
waveform monitor
A waveform monitor is a special type of oscilloscope used in television production applications. It is typically used to measure and display the level, or voltage, of a video signal with respect to time.
The level of a video signal usually cor ...
s (oftentimes as an "RGB parade"),
vectorscope
A vectorscope is a special type of oscilloscope used in both audio and video applications. Whereas an oscilloscope or waveform monitor normally displays a plot of signal vs. time, a vectorscope displays an X-Y plot of two signals, which can r ...
s and
false color
False color (or pseudo color) refers to a group of color rendering methods used to display images in color which were recorded in the visible or non-visible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. A false-color image is an image that depicts ...
to highlight areas of the image critical to the photographer.
*
Tripod
A tripod is a portable three-legged frame or stand, used as a platform for supporting the weight and maintaining the stability of some other object. The three-legged (triangular stance) design provides good stability against gravitational loads ...
: primarily used for keeping the camera steady while recording video, doing a long exposure, and
time-lapse
Time-lapse photography is a technique in which the frequency at which film frames are captured (the frame rate) is much lower than the frequency used to view the sequence. When played at normal speed, time appears to be moving faster and thus ...
photography.
* Microscope adapter: used to connect a camera to a microscope to photograph what the microscope is examining.
*
Cable release
The Bulb setting (abbreviated B) on camera shutters is a momentary-action mode that holds shutters open for as long as a photographer depresses the shutter-release button. The Bulb setting is distinct from shutter's Time (T) setting, which is a ...
: used to remotely control the shutter using a remote shutter button that can be connected to the camera via a cable. It can be used to lock the shutter open for the desired period, and it is also commonly used to prevent camera shake from pressing the built-in camera shutter button.
*
Dew shield: prevents moisture build-up on the lens.
*
UV filter
UV filters are compounds, mixtures, or materials that block or absorb ultraviolet (UV) light. One of the major applications of UV filters is their use as sunscreens to protect skin from sunburn and other sun/UV related damage. After the invention ...
: can protect the front element of a lens from scratches, cracks, smudges, dirt, dust, and moisture while keeping a minimum impact on image quality.
* Battery and sometimes a charger.
Large format cameras use special equipment that includes magnifier loupe, viewfinder, angle finder, and focusing rail/truck. Some professional SLRs can be provided with interchangeable
finders for eye-level or waist-level focusing,
focusing screens, eyecup, data backs,
motor-drives for film transportation or external battery packs.
Primary types
Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera
![Nikon D200 front (aka)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Nikon_D200_front_%28aka%29.jpg)
In photography, the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is provided with a mirror to redirect light from the lens to the viewfinder prior to releasing the shutter for composing and focusing an image. When the shutter is released, the mirror swings up and away, allowing the exposure of the
photographic medium, and instantly returns after the exposure is finished. No SLR camera before 1954 had this feature, although the mirror on some early SLR cameras was entirely operated by the force exerted on the shutter release and only returned when the finger pressure was released. The
Asahiflex II, released by Japanese company
Asahi (Pentax) in 1954, was the world's first SLR camera with an instant return mirror.
In the single-lens reflex camera, the photographer sees the scene through the camera lens. This avoids the problem of
parallax which occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens. Single-lens reflex cameras have been made in several formats including sheet film 5x7" and 4x5", roll film 220/120 taking 8,10, 12, or 16 photographs on a 120 roll, and twice that number of a 220 film. These correspond to 6x9, 6x7, 6x6, and 6x4.5 respectively (all dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large format and roll film SLR cameras include
Bronica
Bronica also Zenza Bronica (in Japanese: ) was a Japanese manufacturer of classic medium-format roll film cameras and photographic equipment based in Tokyo, Japan. Their single-lens reflex (SLR) system-cameras competed with Pentax, Hasselblad, Ma ...
,
Graflex
Graflex was a manufacturer that gave its brand name to several models of camera.
The company was founded as the ''Folmer and Schwing Manufacturing Company'' in New York City in 1887 by William F. Folmer and William E. Schwing as a metal working ...
,
Hasselblad
Victor Hasselblad AB is a Swedish manufacturer of medium format cameras, photographic equipment and image scanners based in Gothenburg, Sweden. The company originally became known for its classic analog medium-format cameras that used a waist ...
,
Seagull,
Mamiya
is a Japanese company that manufactures high-end cameras and other related photographic and optical equipment. With headquarters in Tokyo, it has two manufacturing plants and a workforce of over 200 people. The company was founded in May 1940 b ...
and
Pentax
is a brand name used primarily by the Japanese multinational imaging and electronics company Ricoh for DSLR cameras, lenses, sport optics (including binoculars and rifle scopes), and CCTV optics. The Pentax brand is also used by Hoya Corporatio ...
. However, the most common format of SLR cameras has been 35 mm and subsequently the migration to
digital SLR
A digital single-lens reflex camera (digital SLR or DSLR) is a digital camera that combines the optics and the mechanisms of a single-lens reflex camera with a digital imaging sensor.
The reflex design scheme is the primary difference between ...
cameras, using almost identical sized bodies and sometimes using the same lens systems.
Almost all SLR cameras use a front-surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and
pentaprism
A pentaprism is a five-sided reflecting prism used to deviate a beam of light by a constant 90°, even if the entry beam is not at 90° to the prism.
The beam reflects inside the prism ''twice'', allowing the transmission of an image through a r ...
to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure, the mirror is flipped up out of the light path before the shutter opens. Some early cameras experimented with other methods of providing through-the-lens viewing, including the use of a semi-transparent
pellicle as in the
Canon
Canon or Canons may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Canon (fiction), the conceptual material accepted as official in a fictional universe by its fan base
* Literary canon, an accepted body of works considered as high culture
** Western ca ...
''Pellix'' and others with a small periscope such as in the
Corfield Periflex series.
Large-format camera
The large-format camera, taking sheet film, is a direct successor of the early plate cameras and remained in use for high-quality photography and technical, architectural, and industrial photography. There are three common types: the view camera, with its
monorail
A monorail (from "mono", meaning "one", and " rail") is a railway in which the track consists of a single rail or a beam.
Colloquially, the term "monorail" is often used to describe any form of elevated rail or people mover. More accurat ...
and
field camera
A field camera is a view camera that can be folded in a compact size. Modern designs are little different from the first folding field cameras from the 19th century. In general they have more limited camera movements than monorail cameras, but ...
variants, and the
press camera
A press camera is a medium or large format view camera that was predominantly used by press photographers in the early to mid-20th century. It was largely replaced for press photography by 35mm film cameras in the 1960s, and subsequently, by ...
. They have extensible bellows with the lens and shutter mounted on a lens plate at the front. Backs taking
roll film
Roll film or rollfilm is any type of spool-wound photographic film protected from white light exposure by a paper backing. The term originated in contrast to sheet film. Confusingly, roll film was originally often referred to as "cartridge" film ...
and later
digital back
A digital camera back is a device that attaches to the back of a camera in place of the traditional negative film holder and contains an electronic image sensor. This lets cameras that were designed to use film take digital photographs. Thes ...
s are available in addition to the standard dark slide back. These cameras have a wide range of movements allowing very close control of focus and perspective. Composition and focusing are done on view cameras by viewing a
ground-glass screen which is replaced by the film to make the exposure; they are suitable for static subjects only and are slow to use.
Plate camera
![Studijskifotoaparat](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Studijskifotoaparat.JPG)
The earliest cameras produced in significant numbers were ''plate cameras'', using sensitized glass plates. Light entered a lens mounted on a lens board which was separated from the plate by extendible bellows. There were simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses and even for color photography (
Autochrome Lumière
The Autochrome Lumière was an early color photography process patented in 1903 by the Lumière brothers in France and first marketed in 1907. Autochrome was an additive color "mosaic screen plate" process. It was the principal color photogr ...
). Many of these cameras had controls to raise, lower, and tilt the lens forwards or backward to control perspective.
Focusing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glass screen at the point of focus. Because
lens design only allowed rather small aperture lenses, the image on the ground glass screen was faint and most
photographer
A photographer (the Greek φῶς (''phos''), meaning "light", and γραφή (''graphê''), meaning "drawing, writing", together meaning "drawing with light") is a person who makes photographs.
Duties and types of photographers
As in other ...
s had a dark cloth to cover their heads to allow focusing and composition to be carried out more easily. When focus and composition were satisfactory, the ground glass screen was removed, and a sensitized plate was put in its place protected by a
dark slide. To make the exposure, the dark slide was carefully slid out and the shutter opened, and then closed and the dark slide replaced.
Glass plates were later replaced by sheet film in a dark slide for sheet film; adapter sleeves were made to allow sheet film to be used in plate holders. In addition to the ground glass, a simple optical viewfinder was often fitted.
Medium-format camera
Medium-format cameras have a film size between the large-format cameras and smaller 35 mm cameras. Typically these systems use 120 or 220 roll film. The most common image sizes are 6×4.5 cm, 6×6 cm and 6×7 cm; the older 6×9 cm is rarely used. The designs of this kind of camera show greater variation than their larger brethren, ranging from monorail systems through the classic
Hasselblad
Victor Hasselblad AB is a Swedish manufacturer of medium format cameras, photographic equipment and image scanners based in Gothenburg, Sweden. The company originally became known for its classic analog medium-format cameras that used a waist ...
model with separate backs, to smaller rangefinder cameras. There are even compact amateur cameras available in this format.
Twin-lens reflex camera
![Rolleiflex camera](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Rolleiflex_camera.jpg)
Twin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses: one to form the image and one as a viewfinder. The lenses were arranged with the viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an image onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some manufacturers such as Mamiya also provided a reflex head to attach to the viewing screen to allow the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The advantage of a TLR was that it could be easily focused using the viewing screen and that under most circumstances the view seen in the viewing screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances, however, parallax errors were encountered, and some cameras also included an indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded.
Some TLRs had interchangeable lenses, but as these had to be paired lenses, they were relatively heavy and did not provide the range of focal lengths that the SLR could support. Most TLRs used 120 or 220 films; some used the smaller 127 films.
Compact cameras
Instant camera
![Polaroid 636 Close Up instant camera](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Polaroid_636_Close_Up_instant_camera.jpg)
After exposure, every photograph is taken through pinch rollers inside of the instant camera. Thereby the developer paste contained in the paper 'sandwich' is distributed on the image. After a minute, the cover sheet just needs to be removed and one gets a single original positive image with a fixed format. With some systems, it was also possible to create an instant image negative, from which then could be made copies in the photo lab. The ultimate development was the SX-70 system of
Polaroid
Polaroid may refer to:
* Polaroid Corporation, an American company known for its instant film and cameras
* Polaroid camera, a brand of instant camera formerly produced by Polaroid Corporation
* Polaroid film, instant film, and photographs
* Polar ...
, in which a row of ten shots – engine driven – could be made without having to remove any cover sheets from the picture. There were instant cameras for a variety of formats, as well as adapters for instant film use in medium- and large-format cameras.
Subminiature camera
![2016 Minox C 8](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/2016_Minox_C_8.jpg)
Subminiature cameras were first produced in the nineteenth century and use film significantly smaller than 35mm. The expensive 8×11mm
Minox
Minox (pronounced ) is a manufacturer of cameras, known especially for its subminiature camera.
The first product to carry the Minox name was a subminiature camera, conceived in 1922, and finally invented and produced in 1936, by Baltic German ...
, the only type of camera produced by the company from 1937 to 1976, became very widely known and was often used for espionage (the Minox company later also produced larger cameras). Later inexpensive subminiatures were made for general use, some using rewound 16 mm cine film. Image quality with these small film sizes was limited.
Folding camera
![Voigtländer Bessa 66-1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Voigtl%C3%A4nder_Bessa_66-1.JPG)
The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the baseplate to be hinged so that it could be folded up, compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact and small models were dubbed ''vest pocket'' cameras. Folding roll film cameras were preceded by folding plate cameras, more compact than other designs.
Box camera
![Kodak box camera](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Kodak_box_camera.JPG)
Box cameras were introduced as budget-level cameras and had few, if any controls. The original box Brownie models had a small reflex viewfinder mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focusing controls and just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger direct view optical viewfinders together with a curved film path to reduce the impact of deficiencies in the lens.
Rangefinder camera
![Leica IIIa Rangefinder](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Leica_IIIa_Rangefinder.jpg)
As camera lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses became more common,
rangefinder camera
A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with a rangefinder, typically a split-image rangefinder: a range-finding focusing mechanism allowing the photographer to measure the subject distance and take photographs that are in sharp focus. Most va ...
s were introduced to make focusing more precise. Early rangefinders had two separate viewfinder windows, one of which is linked to the focusing mechanisms and moved right or left as the focusing ring is turned. The two separate images are brought together on a ground glass viewing screen. When vertical lines in the object being photographed meet exactly in the combined image, the object is in focus. A normal composition viewfinder is also provided. Later the viewfinder and rangefinder were combined. Many rangefinder cameras had
interchangeable lenses, each lens requiring its range- and viewfinder linkages.
Rangefinder cameras were produced in
half- and full-frame 35 mm and roll film (medium format).
Motion picture cameras
A
movie camera
A movie camera (also known as a film camera and cine-camera) is a type of photographic camera that rapidly takes a sequence of photographs, either on an image sensor or onto film stock, in order to produce a moving image to project onto a movie sc ...
or a
video camera
A video camera is an optical instrument that captures videos (as opposed to a movie camera, which records images on film). Video cameras were initially developed for the television industry but have since become widely used for a variety of oth ...
operates similarly to a still camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession, commonly at a
rate of 24 frames per second. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved.
Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as cine cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras. However, these categories overlap as still cameras are often used to capture moving images in
special effects work and many modern cameras can quickly switch between still and motion recording modes.
A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each called a ''frame'', through the use of an intermittent mechanism.
The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the ''frame rate'' (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain
merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888 and by 1890 several types were being manufactured. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as
35mm film 35 mm may refer to:
* 135 film, a type of still photography format commonly referred to as 35 mm film
* 35 mm movie film, a type of motion picture film stock
* 35MM 35 mm may refer to:
* 135 film, a type of still photography format ...
and this remained in use until the transition to digital cinematography. Other professional standard formats include
70 mm film and 16 mm film whilst amateur filmmakers used 9.5 mm film, 8 mm film, or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital format.
The size and complexity of ciné cameras vary greatly depending on the uses required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too heavy to be handheld whilst some amateur cameras were designed to be very small and light for single-handed operation.
Professional video camera
![Arri Alexa camera](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Arri_Alexa_camera.jpg)
A
professional video camera
A professional video camera (often called a television camera even though its use has spread beyond television) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that earlier recorded the images on film). ...
(often called a ''television camera'' even though the use has spread beyond television) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that earlier recorded the images on
film). Originally developed for use in television studios, they are now also used for music videos,
direct-to-video
Direct-to-video or straight-to-video refers to the release of a film, TV series, short or special to the public immediately on home video formats rather than an initial theatrical release or television premiere. This distribution strategy wa ...
movies, corporate and educational videos, marriage videos, etc.
These cameras earlier used
vacuum tubes
A vacuum tube, electron tube, valve (British usage), or tube (North America), is a device that controls electric current flow in a high vacuum between electrodes to which an electric potential difference has been applied.
The type known as a ...
and later electronic
image sensors.
Camcorders
![Sony Handycam HDV digital camcorder HDR-HC1E](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Sony_Handycam_HDV_digital_camcorder_HDR-HC1E.jpg)
A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and a video recorder. Although marketing materials may use the colloquial term "camcorder", the name on the package and manual is often "video camera recorder". Most devices capable of recording video are camera phones and digital cameras primarily intended for still pictures; the term "camcorder" is used to describe a portable, self-contained device, with video capture and recording its primary function.
Digital camera
![Disassembled_digital_camera](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Disassembled_digital_camera.jpg)
A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes
digital images and videos and stores them for later reproduction. They typically use semiconductor image sensors. Most cameras sold today are digital, and they are incorporated into many devices ranging from mobile phones (called
camera phones) to vehicles.
Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens of variable aperture to focus light onto an image pickup device. The aperture and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being captured or recorded, and store and delete images from
memory
Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past events could not be remembered ...
. Most digital cameras can also record moving videos with
sound
In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as an acoustic wave, through a transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or solid.
In human physiology and psychology, sound is the ''reception'' of such waves and their ''perception'' b ...
. Some digital cameras can
crop
A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. When the plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or hydropon ...
and
stitch pictures & perform other elementary
image editing
Image editing encompasses the processes of altering images, whether they are digital photographs, traditional photo-chemical photographs, or illustrations. Traditional analog image editing is known as photo retouching, using tools such as a ...
.
Consumers adopted digital cameras in the 1990s. Professional video cameras transitioned to digital around the 2000s–2010s. Finally, movie cameras transitioned to digital in the 2010s.
The first camera using digital electronics to capture and store images was developed by Kodak engineer
Steven Sasson in 1975. He used a charge-coupled device (CCD) provided by
Fairchild Semiconductor, which provided only 0.01 megapixels to capture images. Sasson combined the CCD device with movie camera parts to create a digital camera that saved black and white images onto a
cassette tape.The images were then read from the cassette and viewed on a TV monitor. Later, cassette tapes were replaced by flash memory.
In 1986, Japanese company
Nikon
(, ; ), also known just as Nikon, is a Japanese multinational corporation headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, specializing in optics and imaging products. The companies held by Nikon form the Nikon Group.
Nikon's products include cameras, camera ...
introduced an analog-recording electronic single-lens reflex camera, the Nikon SVC.
The first
full-frame digital SLR
A full-frame DSLR is a digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR) with a 35 mm image sensor format (). Historically, 35 mm was one of the standard film formats, alongside larger ones, such as medium format and large format. The full-fra ...
cameras were developed in Japan from around 2000 to 2002: the MZ-D by Pentax, the
N Digital by
Contax's Japanese R6D team, and the
EOS-1Ds by
Canon
Canon or Canons may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Canon (fiction), the conceptual material accepted as official in a fictional universe by its fan base
* Literary canon, an accepted body of works considered as high culture
** Western ca ...
. Gradually in the 2000s, the full-frame DSLR became the dominant camera type for professional photography.
On most digital cameras a display, often a
liquid crystal display (LCD), permits the user to view the scene to be recorded and settings such as
ISO speed
Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relations ...
, exposure, and shutter speed.
Camera phone
![Phone photography](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Phone_photography.jpg)
In 2000,
Sharp
Sharp or SHARP may refer to:
Acronyms
* SHARP (helmet ratings) (Safety Helmet Assessment and Rating Programme), a British motorcycle helmet safety rating scheme
* Self Help Addiction Recovery Program, a charitable organisation founded in 19 ...
introduced the world's first digital camera phone, the
J-SH04
The J-SH04 was a mobile phone made by Sharp Corporation and released by J-Phone ( SoftBank Mobile). It was only available in Japan, and was released in November 2000. It was Japan's first phone with a built-in, back-facing camera. It has a 110,0 ...
J-Phone
is a Japanese multinational conglomerate holding company headquartered in Minato, Tokyo which focuses on investment management. The Group primarily invests in companies operating in technology, energy, and financial sectors. It also runs th ...
, in Japan.
By the mid-2000s, higher-end
cell phones
A mobile phone, cellular phone, cell phone, cellphone, handphone, hand phone or pocket phone, sometimes shortened to simply mobile, cell, or just phone, is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link whi ...
had an integrated digital camera, and by the beginning of the 2010s, almost all
smartphone
A smartphone is a portable computer device that combines mobile telephone and computing functions into one unit. They are distinguished from feature phones by their stronger hardware capabilities and extensive mobile operating systems, whic ...
s had an integrated digital camera.
See also
*
Camera matrix
In computer vision a camera matrix or (camera) projection matrix is a 3 \times 4 matrix which describes the mapping of a pinhole camera from 3D points in the world to 2D points in an image.
Let \mathbf be a representation of a 3D point in homog ...
*
History of the camera
The history of the camera began even before the introduction of photography. Cameras evolved from the camera obscura through many generations of photographic technologydaguerreotypes, calotypes, dry plates, filmto the modern day with digital ca ...
*
Camera phone
*
List of camera types {{Short description, none
* Camera, the general term:
** 360 camera (VR camera)
** 3D camcorder
** Action camera
** Animation camera
** Autofocus camera
** Backup camera
** Banquet camera
** Body camera
** Box camera
** Bridge camera
** Camcorder
...
*
List of digital camera brands
This is a list of digital camera brands. Former and current brands are included in this list. With some of the brands, the name is licensed from another company, or acquired after the bankruptcy of an older photographic equipment company. The a ...
Footnotes
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
How cameras works at How stuff works.
{{Authority control
Cameras
A camera is an optical instrument that can capture an image. Most cameras can capture 2D images, with some more advanced models being able to capture 3D images. At a basic level, most cameras consist of sealed boxes (the camera body), with a ...
Photography equipment
Optical devices