Cabbage, comprising several
cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture ...
s of ''
Brassica oleracea
''Brassica oleracea'' is a plant species from family Brassicaceae that includes many common cultivars used as vegetables, such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, Savoy cabbage, kohlrabi, and gai lan.
...
'', is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green)
biennial plant grown as an
annual
Annual may refer to:
*Annual publication, periodical publications appearing regularly once per year
** Yearbook
** Literary annual
*Annual plant
*Annual report
*Annual giving
*Annual, Morocco, a settlement in northeastern Morocco
*Annuals (band), ...
vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage (
''B. oleracea'' var. ''oleracea''), and belongs to the "
cole crops
Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae (also called Cruciferae) with many genera, species, and cultivars being raised for food production such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, Brusse ...
" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to
broccoli
Broccoli (''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''italica'') is an edible green plant in the cabbage family (family Brassicaceae, genus ''Brassica'') whose large flowering head, stalk and small associated leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Broccoli is cla ...
and
cauliflower (var. ''botrytis'');
Brussels sprouts
The Brussels sprout is a member of the Gemmifera cultivar group of cabbages (''Brassica oleracea''), grown for its edible buds. The leaf vegetables are typically 1.5–4.0 cm (0.6–1.6 in) in diameter and resemble miniature cabbag ...
(var. ''gemmifera''); and
Savoy cabbage
Savoy cabbage (''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''sabauda'' L. or ''Brassica oleracea'' Savoy Cabbage Group) is a variety of the plant species ''Brassica oleracea''. Savoy cabbage is a winter vegetable and one of several cabbage varieties. It is named ...
(var. ''sabauda'').
A cabbage generally weighs between . Smooth-leafed, firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed purple cabbages and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colours being rarer. Under conditions of long sunny days, such as those found at high northern latitudes in summer, cabbages can grow quite large. , the heaviest cabbage was . Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant's
life cycle
Life cycle, life-cycle, or lifecycle may refer to:
Science and academia
*Biological life cycle, the sequence of life stages that an organism undergoes from birth to reproduction ending with the production of the offspring
* Life-cycle hypothesis ...
, but plants intended for seed are allowed to grow a second year and must be kept separate from other
cole crops
Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae (also called Cruciferae) with many genera, species, and cultivars being raised for food production such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, Brusse ...
to prevent
cross-pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, bird ...
. Cabbage is prone to several
nutrient deficiencies
Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues ...
, as well as to multiple
pests
PESTS was an anonymous American activist group formed in 1986 to critique racism, tokenism, and exclusion in the art world. PESTS produced newsletters, posters, and other print material highlighting examples of discrimination in gallery represent ...
, and bacterial and fungal diseases.
Cabbage was most likely
domesticated
Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which humans assume a significant degree of control over the reproduction and care of another group of organisms to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that group. A ...
somewhere in
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
in
Ancient history
Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient history cove ...
before 1000 BC.
Cabbage in the cuisine has been documented since
Antiquity.
[A brief historical sketch is in Toussaint-Samat, pp. 622ff.] It was described as a table luxury in the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediter ...
. By the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
, cabbage had become a prominent part of
European cuisine, as indicated by
manuscript illuminations. New variates were introduced from the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...
on, mostly by
Germanic-speaking peoples.
Savoy cabbage
Savoy cabbage (''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''sabauda'' L. or ''Brassica oleracea'' Savoy Cabbage Group) is a variety of the plant species ''Brassica oleracea''. Savoy cabbage is a winter vegetable and one of several cabbage varieties. It is named ...
was developed in the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was popularised as
staple food in central, northern, and eastern Europe.
Tannahill Tannahill may refer to:
* Jordan Tannahill, Canadian playwright and filmmaker
* Mary Tannahill, (1863-1951) American artist
* Reay Tannahill, author of ''Food in History'' (1973) and other works
* Robert Tannahill (1774 — 1810), Scottish poet
* T ...
, pp. 289–291 It was also employed by European sailors to prevent
scurvy
Scurvy is a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Early symptoms of deficiency include weakness, feeling tired and sore arms and legs. Without treatment, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, changes to hair, and bleeding ...
during long ship voyages at sea. Starting in the
Early Modern Era, cabbage was exported to the
Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.
Along with th ...
,
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
, and around the world.
They can be prepared many different ways for eating; they can be
pickled
Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food's texture and flavor. The resulting food is called ...
,
fermented
Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is narrowly defined as the extraction of energy from carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen. In food p ...
(for dishes such as
sauerkraut
Sauerkraut (; , "sour cabbage") is finely cut raw cabbage that has been fermented by various lactic acid bacteria. It has a long shelf life and a distinctive sour flavor, both of which result from the lactic acid formed when the bacteria ferm ...
),
steamed
Steaming is a method of cooking using steam. This is often done with a food steamer, a kitchen appliance made specifically to cook food with steam, but food can also be steamed in a wok. In the American southwest, steam pits used for cooking hav ...
,
stewed,
roasted
Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry heat where hot air covers the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least from an open flame, oven, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance the flavor through caramelizatio ...
,
sautéed,
braised, or eaten
raw
Raw is an adjective usually describing:
* Raw materials, basic materials from which products are manufactured or made
* Raw food, uncooked food
Raw or RAW may also refer to:
Computing and electronics
* .RAW, a proprietary mass spectrometry dat ...
. Raw cabbage is a rich source of
vitamin K
Vitamin K refers to structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamers found in foods and marketed as dietary supplements. The human body requires vitamin K for post-synthesis modification of certain proteins that are required for blood coagulation ...
,
vitamin C
Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables, also sold as a dietary supplement and as a topical 'serum' ingredient to treat melasma (dark pigment spots) ...
, and
dietary fiber. World production of cabbage and other
brassica
''Brassica'' () is a genus of plants in the cabbage and mustard family ( Brassicaceae). The members of the genus are informally known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages, or mustard plants. Crops from this genus are sometimes called ''cole c ...
s in 2020 was 71 million
tonne
The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1000 kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the short ton ( United State ...
s, led by
China with 48% of the total.
Taxonomy and etymology
![Chou 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Chou_1.jpg)
Cabbage (''Brassica oleracea'' or ''B. oleracea'' var. ''capitata'',
[ var. ''tuba'', var. ''sabauda''] or var. ''acephala'') is a member of the genus ''Brassica
''Brassica'' () is a genus of plants in the cabbage and mustard family ( Brassicaceae). The members of the genus are informally known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages, or mustard plants. Crops from this genus are sometimes called ''cole c ...
'' and the mustard family, Brassicaceae
Brassicaceae () or (the older) Cruciferae () is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. Most are herbaceous plants, while some are shrubs. The leav ...
. Several other cruciferous vegetables
Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae (also called Cruciferae) with many genera, species, and cultivars being raised for food production such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, Brusse ...
(sometimes known as ''cole crops''[) are ]cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture ...
s of ''B. oleracea'', including broccoli
Broccoli (''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''italica'') is an edible green plant in the cabbage family (family Brassicaceae, genus ''Brassica'') whose large flowering head, stalk and small associated leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Broccoli is cla ...
, collard greens
Collard is a group of certain loose-leafed cultivars of ''Brassica oleracea'', the same species as many common vegetables including cabbage ( Capitata group) and broccoli ( Italica group). Collard is a member of the Viridis group of ''Brassica ...
, brussels sprouts
The Brussels sprout is a member of the Gemmifera cultivar group of cabbages (''Brassica oleracea''), grown for its edible buds. The leaf vegetables are typically 1.5–4.0 cm (0.6–1.6 in) in diameter and resemble miniature cabbag ...
, kohlrabi
Kohlrabi (pronounced ; scientific name ''Brassica oleracea'' Gongylodes Group (horticulture), Group), also called German turnip or turnip cabbage, is a Biennial plant, biennial vegetable, a low, stout cultivar of wild cabbage. It is a cultivar o ...
and sprouting broccoli
Broccoli (''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''italica'') is an edible green plant in the cabbage family (family Brassicaceae, genus ''Brassica'') whose large flowering head, stalk and small associated leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Broccoli is cla ...
. All of these developed from the wild cabbage ''B. oleracea'' var. ''oleracea'', also called colewort
''Brassica oleracea'' is a plant species from family Brassicaceae that includes many common cultivars used as vegetables, such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, Savoy cabbage, kohlrabi, and gai lan.
It ...
or field cabbage. This original species evolved
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...
over thousands of years into those seen today, as selection
Selection may refer to:
Science
* Selection (biology), also called natural selection, selection in evolution
** Sex selection, in genetics
** Mate selection, in mating
** Sexual selection in humans, in human sexuality
** Human mating strateg ...
resulted in cultivars having different characteristics, such as large heads for cabbage, large leaves for kale and thick stems with flower buds for broccoli.
The varietal epithet ''capitata'' is derived from the Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
word for "having a head".
"Cabbage" was originally used to refer to multiple forms of ''B. oleracea'', including those with loose or non-existent heads.[ A related species, '']Brassica rapa
''Brassica rapa'' is a plant species growing in various widely cultivated forms including the turnip (a root vegetable); napa cabbage, bomdong, bok choy, and rapini.
''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''oleifera'' is an oilseed which has many common n ...
'', is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage, and has many of the same uses. It is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree (a member of the genus ''Andira
''Andira'' is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. It is distributed in the tropical Americas, except for ''A. inermis'', which also occurs in Africa. It was formerly assigned to the tribe Dalbergieae, but recent molecul ...
'') and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as ''Mauritia
''Mauritia'' is a genus of fan palms which is native to northern South America and to the Island of Trinidad
Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies off the northeastern ...
'', ''Roystonea oleracea
''Roystonea oleracea'', sometimes known as the Caribbean royal palm, palmiste, imperial palm or cabbage palm, is a species of palm which is native to the Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, and Trinidad and Tobago. It is also reportedly natural ...
'', ''Acrocomia
''Acrocomia'' is a genus of palms which is native to the Neotropics, ranging from Mexico in the north, through Central America and the Caribbean, and through South America south to Argentina.
Description
''Acrocomia'' is a genus of spiny, pin ...
'' and ''Euterpe oenocarpus''.
The original family name of brassicas was ''Cruciferae'', which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix
A crucifix (from Latin ''cruci fixus'' meaning "(one) fixed to a cross") is a cross with an image of Jesus on it, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the ''corpus'' (Lati ...
.[ Katz and Weaver, p. 279] The word ''brassica'' derives from ''bresic'', a Celtic
Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to:
Language and ethnicity
*pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia
**Celts (modern)
*Celtic languages
**Proto-Celtic language
* Celtic music
*Celtic nations
Sports Fo ...
word for cabbage. Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root ''cap'' or ''kap'', meaning "head". The late Middle English
Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English p ...
word ''cabbage'' derives from the word ''caboche'' ("head"), from the Picard dialect of Old French
Old French (, , ; Modern French: ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France from approximately the 8th to the 14th centuries. Rather than a unified language, Old French was a linkage of Romance dialects, mutually intellig ...
. This in turn is a variant of the Old French ''caboce''. Through the centuries, "cabbage" and its derivatives have been used as slang for numerous items, occupations and activities. Cash
In economics, cash is money in the physical form of currency, such as banknotes and coins.
In bookkeeping and financial accounting, cash is current assets comprising currency or currency equivalents that can be accessed immediately or near-im ...
and tobacco
Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
have both been described by the slang "cabbage", while "cabbage-head" means a fool or stupid person and "cabbaged" means to be exhausted or, vulgarly, in a vegetative state
A persistent vegetative state (PVS) or post-coma unresponsiveness (PCU) is a disorder of consciousness in which patients with severe brain damage are in a state of partial arousal rather than true awareness. After four weeks in a vegetative stat ...
.
Description
Cabbage seedling
A seedling is a young sporophyte developing out of a plant embryo from a seed. Seedling development starts with germination of the seed. A typical young seedling consists of three main parts: the radicle (embryonic root), the hypocotyl (embryo ...
s have a thin taproot
A taproot is a large, central, and dominant root from which other roots sprout laterally. Typically a taproot is somewhat straight and very thick, is tapering in shape, and grows directly downward. In some plants, such as the carrot, the taproo ...
and cordate (heart-shaped) cotyledon
A cotyledon (; ; ; , gen. (), ) is a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant, and is defined as "the embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants, one or more of which are the first to appear from a germinating seed." The num ...
s. The first leaves produced are ovate (egg-shaped) with a lobed petiole. Plants are tall in their first year at the mature vegetative stage, and tall when flowering in the second year.[ Dixon, p. 19] Heads average between , with fast-growing, earlier-maturing varieties producing smaller heads. Most cabbages have thick, alternating leaves, with margins that range from wavy or lobed to highly dissected; some varieties have a waxy bloom on the leaves. Plants have root systems that are fibrous and shallow.[ About 90 percent of the root mass is in the upper of soil; some ]lateral root
Lateral roots, emerging from the pericycle (meristematic tissue), extend horizontally from the primary root (radicle) and over time makeup the iconic branching pattern of root systems. They contribute to anchoring the plant securely into the soil ...
s can penetrate up to deep.
The inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphology (biology), Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of sperma ...
is an unbranched and indeterminate terminal raceme measuring tall, with flowers that are yellow or white. Each flower has four petals set in a perpendicular pattern, as well as four sepal
A sepal () is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom., p. 106 The term ''sepalum'' was coine ...
s, six stamens, and a superior ovary
In the flowering plants, an ovary is a part of the female reproductive organ of the flower or gynoecium. Specifically, it is the part of the pistil which holds the ovule(s) and is located above or below or at the point of connection with the ...
that is two-celled and contains a single stigma and style
Style is a manner of doing or presenting things and may refer to:
* Architectural style, the features that make a building or structure historically identifiable
* Design, the process of creating something
* Fashion, a prevailing mode of clothing ...
. Two of the six stamens have shorter filaments. The fruit is a silique
A silique or siliqua (plural ''siliques'' or ''siliquae'') is a type of fruit (seed capsule) having two fused carpels with the length being more than three times the width. When the length is less than three times the width of the dried fruit i ...
that opens at maturity through dehiscence to reveal brown or black seeds that are small and round in shape. Self-pollination
Self-pollination is a form of pollination in which pollen from the same plant arrives at the stigma of a flower (in flowering plants) or at the ovule (in gymnosperms). There are two types of self-pollination: in autogamy, pollen is transferred ...
is impossible, and plants are cross-pollinated
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, birds, a ...
by insects.[ The initial leaves form a rosette shape comprising 7 to 15 leaves, each measuring by ;] after this, leaves with shorter petioles develop and heads form through the leaves cupping inward.[
Many shapes, colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage. Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled-leaf, loose-head savoys and smooth-leaf firm-head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples. Oblate, round and pointed shapes are found.][ Katz and Weaver, p. 280]
Cabbage has been selectively bred
Selective breeding (also called artificial selection) is the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant m ...
for head weight and morphological characteristics, frost hardiness, fast growth and storage ability. The appearance of the cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding, with varieties being chosen for shape, color, firmness and other physical characteristics. Breeding
Breeding is sexual reproduction that produces offspring, usually animals or plants. It can only occur between a male and a female animal or plant.
Breeding may refer to:
* Animal husbandry, through selected specimens such as dogs, horses, and ra ...
objectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage. Scientific research into the genetic modification
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including t ...
of ''B. oleracea'' crops, including cabbage, has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect and herbicide resistance.
There are several '' Guinness Book of World Records'' entries related to cabbage. These include the heaviest cabbage, at , heaviest red cabbage, at , longest cabbage roll, at , and the largest cabbage dish, at .
History
Although cabbage has an extensive history, it is difficult to trace its exact origins owing to the many varieties of leafy greens classified as "brassicas".[ A possible wild ancestor of cabbage, '']Brassica oleracea
''Brassica oleracea'' is a plant species from family Brassicaceae that includes many common cultivars used as vegetables, such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, Savoy cabbage, kohlrabi, and gai lan.
...
'', originally found in Britain and continental Europe, is tolerant of salt but not encroachment by other plants and consequently inhabits rocky cliffs in cool damp coastal habitats, retaining water and nutrients in its slightly thickened, turgid leaves. However, genetic analysis is consistent with feral
A feral () animal or plant is one that lives in the wild but is descended from domesticated individuals. As with an introduced species, the introduction of feral animals or plants to non-native regions may disrupt ecosystems and has, in some ...
origin of this population, deriving from plants escaped from field and gardens. According to the triangle of U
The triangle of U ( ) is a theory about the evolution and relationships among the six most commonly known members of the plant genus ''Brassica''. The theory states that the genomes of three ancestral diploid species of ''Brassica'' combined to ...
theory of the evolution and relationships between ''Brassica'' species, ''B. oleracea'' and other closely related kale vegetables (cabbages, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower) represent one of three ancestral lines from which all other brassicas originated.
Cabbage was probably domesticated later in history than Near Eastern crops such as lentil
The lentil (''Lens culinaris'' or ''Lens esculenta'') is an edible legume. It is an annual plant known for its lens-shaped seeds. It is about tall, and the seeds grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each. As a food crop, the largest pro ...
s and summer wheat. Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wild ''B. oleracea'', multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe. Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated, before 1000 BC,[ Katz and Weaver, p. 284] perhaps by the Celts
The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancien ...
of central and western Europe,[ although recent linguistic and genetic evidence enforces a Mediterranean origin of cultivated brassicas.
While unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchanging ]Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the ...
n garden repertory, it is believed that the ancient Egyptians did not cultivate cabbage, which is not native to the Nile valley, though the word ''shaw't'' in Papyrus Harris
Papyrus Harris I is also known as the Great Harris Papyrus and (less accurately) simply the Harris Papyrus (though there are a number of other papyri in the Harris collection). Its technical designation is ''Papyrus British Museum EA 9999''. At 41 ...
of the time of Ramesses III
Usermaatre Meryamun Ramesses III (also written Ramses and Rameses) was the second Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty in Ancient Egypt. He is thought to have reigned from 26 March 1186 to 15 April 1155 BC and is considered to be the last great monar ...
has been interpreted as "cabbage".[ Janick, p. 51] The ancient Greeks had some varieties of cabbage, as mentioned by Theophrastus
Theophrastus (; grc-gre, Θεόφραστος ; c. 371c. 287 BC), a Greek philosopher and the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos.Gavin Hardy and Laurence Totelin, ''Ancient Botany'', Routle ...
, although whether they were more closely related to today's cabbage or to one of the other ''Brassica'' crops is unknown.[ The headed cabbage variety was known to the Greeks as ''krambe'' and to the Romans as ''brassica'' or ''olus'';] the open, leafy variety (kale) was known in Greek as ''raphanos'' and in Latin as ''caulis''. Ptolemaic Egyptians knew the cole crops
Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae (also called Cruciferae) with many genera, species, and cultivars being raised for food production such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, Brusse ...
as ''gramb'', under the influence of Greek ''krambe'', which had been a familiar plant to the Macedonian antecedents of the Ptolemies. By early Roman times, Egyptian artisans and children were eating cabbage and turnip
The turnip or white turnip ('' Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''rapa'') is a root vegetable commonly grown in temperate climates worldwide for its white, fleshy taproot. The word ''turnip'' is a compound of ''turn'' as in turned/rounded on a lathe and ...
s among a wide variety of other vegetables and pulses
In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the cardiac cycle (heartbeat) by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the nec ...
.
Chrysippus of Cnidos
Chrysippus of Cnidos ( grc-gre, Χρύσιππος ὁ Κνίδιος, 4th century BC) was a Greek physician. He was the son of Erineus, Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 89 and a contemporary of Praxagoras, a pupil of Eudoxus of Cnidos and Philistion of ...
wrote a treatise on cabbage, which Pliny knew, but it has not survived. The Greeks were convinced that cabbages and grapevine
''Vitis'' (grapevine) is a genus of 79 accepted species of vining plants in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. The genus is made up of species predominantly from the Northern Hemisphere. It is economically important as the source of grapes, ...
s were inimical, and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today.[ Toussaint-Samat, p. 622.]
''Brassica'' was considered by some Romans a table luxury, although Lucullus
Lucius Licinius Lucullus (; 118–57/56 BC) was a Roman general and statesman, closely connected with Lucius Cornelius Sulla. In culmination of over 20 years of almost continuous military and government service, he conquered the eastern kingd ...
considered it unfit for the senatorial table. The more traditionalist Cato the Elder
Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor ( la, Censorius), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, senator, and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was the first to write his ...
, espousing a simple Republican life, ate his cabbage cooked or raw and dressed with vinegar; he said it surpassed all other vegetables, and approvingly distinguished three varieties; he also gave directions for its medicinal use, which extended to the cabbage-eater's urine, in which infants might be rinsed. Pliny the Elder listed seven varieties, including Pompeii cabbage, Cumae cabbage and Sabellians, Sabellian cabbage.
According to Pliny, the Pompeii cabbage, which could not stand cold, is "taller, and has a thick stock near the root, but grows thicker between the leaves, these being scantier and narrower, but their tenderness is a valuable quality". The Pompeii cabbage was also mentioned by Columella in Columella#De Re Rustica, ''De Re Rustica''. Apicius gives several recipes for ''cauliculi'', tender cabbage shoots. The Greeks and Romans claimed medicinal usages for their cabbage varieties that included relief from gout, headaches and the symptoms of poisonous mushroom ingestion.
The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would enable one to avoid drunkenness. Cabbage continued to figure in the ''materia medica'' of antiquity as well as at table: in the first century AD Pedanius Dioscorides, Dioscorides mentions two kinds of coleworts with medical uses, the cultivated and the wild, and his opinions continued to be paraphrased in herbals right through the 17th century.
At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned in ''De observatione ciborum'' ("On the Observance of Foods") by Anthimus (physician), Anthimus, a Greek doctor at the court of Theodoric the Great. Cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in the ''Capitulare de villis'', composed in 771–800 AD, that guided the governance of the royal estates of Charlemagne.
In Britain, the Anglo-Saxons cultivated ''cawel''. When round-headed cabbages appeared in 14th-century England they were called ''cabaches'' and ''caboches'', words drawn from Old French
Old French (, , ; Modern French: ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France from approximately the 8th to the 14th centuries. Rather than a unified language, Old French was a linkage of Romance dialects, mutually intellig ...
and applied at first to refer to the ball of unopened leaves, the contemporaneous recipe that commences "Take cabbages and quarter them, and seethe them in good broth", also suggests the tightly headed cabbage.
Manuscript illuminations show the prominence of cabbage in the cuisine of the High Middle Ages, and cabbage seeds feature among the seed list of purchases for the use of John II of France, King John II of France when captive in England in 1360, but cabbages were also a familiar staple of the poor: in the lean year of 1420 the "Bourgeois of Paris" noted that "poor people ate no bread, nothing but cabbages and turnips and such dishes, without any bread or salt". French naturalist Jean Ruel made what is considered the first explicit mention of head cabbage in his 1536 botanical treatise ''De Natura Stirpium'', referring to it as ''capucos coles'' ("head-coles").
In Istanbul, Sultan Selim III penned a tongue-in-cheek ode to cabbage: without cabbage, the halva feast was not complete. In India, cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal, who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries. Carl Peter Thunberg reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775.
Many cabbage varieties—including some still commonly grown—were introduced in Germany, France, and the Low Countries.[ During the 16th century, German gardeners developed the savoy cabbage.][ During the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was a food staple food, staple in such countries as Germany, England, Ireland and Russia, and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten.] Sauerkraut was used by Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors to prevent scurvy
Scurvy is a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Early symptoms of deficiency include weakness, feeling tired and sore arms and legs. Without treatment, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, changes to hair, and bleeding ...
during long ship voyages.
Jacques Cartier first brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541–42, and it was probably planted by the early English colonists, despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid-17th century. By the 18th century, it was commonly planted by both colonists and native Native Americans in the United States, American Indians.[ Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet, and were planted the same year on Norfolk Island. It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by the 1830s and was frequently seen at the Sydney Markets.]
A traditional and very old, street, open air market: Zelný trh, Zelný trh (Cabbage market) in Brno, Moravia, Czech republic is named only by cabbage since 1325 (700 year) years.
Cultivation
Cabbage is generally grown for its densely leaved heads, produced during the first year of its biennial cycle. Plants perform best when grown in well-drained soil in a location that receives full sun. Different varieties prefer different soil types, ranging from lighter sand to heavier clay, but all prefer fertile ground with a Soil pH, pH between 6.0 and 6.8.[ For optimal growth, there must be adequate levels of nitrogen in the soil, especially during the early head formation stage, and sufficient phosphorus and potassium during the early stages of expansion of the outer leaves.][#Wurr, Wien and Wurr, p. 533]
Temperatures between prompt the best growth, and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in premature bolting (horticulture), bolting (flowering).[#Bradley, Bradley et al., pp. 56–57] Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures (a process called vernalization) only occurs if the plant is past the juvenile period. The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about . Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering. In certain climates, cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower, a practice that was common in the eastern US.
Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before being transplanting, transplanted outside, although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested.[ Seedlings typically emerge in about 4–6 days from seeds planted deep at a soil temperature between . Growers normally place plants apart.][ Closer spacing reduces the resources available to each plant (especially the amount of light) and increases the time taken to reach maturity.
Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use; these are generally called "flowering cabbage". They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white, red, or pink.][ Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity, while late varieties take about 120 days.
Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to the touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade. The outer leaves are trimmed, and any diseased, damaged, or necrotic leaves are removed. Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth.
When being grown for seed, cabbages must be isolated from other ''B. oleracea'' subspecies, including the wild varieties, by to prevent cross-pollination. Other ''Brassica'' species, such as ''Brassica rapa, B. rapa'', ''Brassica juncea, B. juncea'', ''Brassica nigra, B. nigra'', ''Brassica napus, B. napus'' and ''Raphanus sativus'', do not readily cross-pollinate.
]
Cultivars
There are several cultivar groups of cabbage, each including many cultivars:
* Savoy cabbage, Savoy – Characterized by crimped or curly leaves, mild flavor and tender texture[
* Spring greens (Brassica oleracea) – Loose-headed, commonly sliced and steamed][
* Green – Light to dark green, slightly pointed heads.][
* Red cabbage, Red – Smooth red leaves, often used for pickling or stewing][
* White, also called Dutch – Smooth, pale green leaves][
Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed under the last.
]
Cultivation problems
Due to its high level of nutrient requirements, cabbage is prone to nutrient deficiencies
Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues ...
, including Boron deficiency (plant disorder), boron, Calcium deficiency (plant disorder), calcium, Phosphorus deficiency, phosphorus and Potassium deficiency (plants), potassium.[ There are several physiological disorders that can affect the postharvest appearance of cabbage. Internal tip burn occurs when the margins of inside leaves turn brown, but the outer leaves look normal. Necrotic spot is where there are oval sunken spots a few millimeters across that are often grouped around the midrib. In pepper spot, tiny black spots occur on the areas between the veins, which can increase during storage.
Fungal diseases include Rhizoctonia solani, wirestem, which causes weak or dying transplants; Fusarium, ''Fusarium'' yellows, which result in stunted and twisted plants with yellow leaves; and Blackleg (Brassica), blackleg (see ''Leptosphaeria maculans''), which leads to sunken areas on stems and gray-brown spotted leaves.][ The fungi ''Alternaria brassicae'' and ''Alternaria brassicicola, A. brassicicola'' cause dark leaf spots in affected plants. They are both seedborne and airborne, and typically propagate from spores in infected plant debris left on the soil surface for up to twelve weeks after harvest. ''Rhizoctonia solani'' causes the post-emergence disease wirestem, resulting in killed seedlings ("damping-off"), root rot or stunted growth and smaller heads.]
One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage is black rot, caused by ''Xanthomonas campestris'', which causes chlorosis, chlorotic and necrosis, necrotic lesions that start at the leaf margins, and wilting of plants. Clubroot, caused by the soilborne slime mold-like organism ''Plasmodiophora brassicae'', results in swollen, club-like roots. Downy mildew, a parasitic disease caused by the oomycete ''Peronospora parasitica'', produces pale leaves with white, brownish or olive mildew on the lower leaf surfaces; this is often confused with the fungal disease powdery mildew.[
Pests include root-knot nematodes and Delia radicum, cabbage maggots, which produce stunted and wilted plants with yellow leaves; aphids, which induce stunted plants with curled and yellow leaves; harlequin cabbage bugs, which cause white and yellow leaves; thrips, which lead to leaves with white-bronze spots; striped flea beetles, which riddle leaves with small holes; and caterpillars, which leave behind large, ragged holes in leaves.][#Bradley, Bradley et al., pp. 57–59] The caterpillar stage of the "small cabbage white butterfly" (''Pieris rapae''), commonly known in the United States as the "imported cabbage worm", is a major cabbage pest in most countries.
The large white butterfly (''Pieris brassicae'') is prevalent in eastern European countries. The diamondback moth (''Plutella xylostella'') and the cabbage moth (''Mamestra brassicae'') thrive in the higher summer temperatures of continental Europe, where they cause considerable damage to cabbage crops. The cabbage looper (''Cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni'') is infamous in North America for its voracious appetite and for producing frass that contaminates plants. In India, the diamondback moth has caused losses up to 90 percent in crops that were not treated with insecticide. Destructive soil insects include the cabbage root fly (''Delia radicum'') and the cabbage maggot (''Hylemya brassicae''), whose larvae can burrow into the part of plant consumed by humans.
Planting near other members of the cabbage family, or where these plants have been placed in previous years, can prompt the spread of pests and disease.[ Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems.][
Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include: growth in the compacted soils that result from no-till farming practices, drought, waterlogging (agriculture), waterlogging, insect and disease incidence, and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds.]
Production
In 2020, world production of cabbages (combined with other brassicas) was 71 million tonne
The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1000 kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the short ton ( United State ...
s, led by China with 48% of the world total (table). Other substantial producers were India, Russia, and South Korea.[
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Culinary use
Local market and storage
Cabbages sold for market are generally smaller, and different varieties are used for those sold immediately upon harvest and those stored before sale. Those used for processing, especially sauerkraut, are larger and have a lower percentage of water.[ Both hand and mechanical harvesting are used, and hand-harvesting is generally used for cabbages destined for market sales. In commercial-scale operations, hand-harvested cabbages are trimmed, sorted, and packed directly in the field to increase efficiency.][ Katz and Weaver, p. 285]
Vacuum cooling rapidly refrigerates the vegetable, allowing for earlier shipping and a fresher product. Cabbage can be stored the longest at with a humidity of 90–100 percent; these conditions will result in up to six months of longevity. When stored under less ideal conditions, cabbage can still last up to four months.
Consumption
Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world: Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at , followed by Belgium at and the Netherlands at . Americans consume annually per capita.[
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Food preparation
Cabbage is prepared and consumed in many ways. The simplest options include eating the vegetable raw or steaming it, though many cuisines pickle, stewing, stew, sauteing, sautée or braising, braise cabbage.[ Pickling is a common way of preserving cabbage, creating dishes such as ]sauerkraut
Sauerkraut (; , "sour cabbage") is finely cut raw cabbage that has been fermented by various lactic acid bacteria. It has a long shelf life and a distinctive sour flavor, both of which result from the lactic acid formed when the bacteria ferm ...
and kimchi,[ although kimchi is more often made from Chinese cabbage (''B. rapa subsp. pekinensis'').][ Savoy cabbages are usually used in salads, while smooth-leaf types are utilized for both market sales and processing.][ Bean curd and cabbage is a staple of Chinese cooking, while the British dish bubble and squeak is made primarily with leftover potato and boiled cabbage and eaten with cold meat.
In Poland, cabbage is one of the main food crops, and it features prominently in Polish cuisine. It is frequently eaten, either cooked or as sauerkraut, as a side dish or as an ingredient in such dishes as bigos (cabbage, sauerkraut, meat, and wild mushrooms, among other ingredients) gołąbki (stuffed cabbage) and pierogi (filled dumplings). Other eastern European countries, such as Hungary and Romania, also have traditional dishes that feature cabbage as a main ingredient. In India and Ethiopia, cabbage is often included in spicy salads and braises.] In the United States, cabbage is used primarily for the production of coleslaw, followed by market use and sauerkraut production.[
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Flavor
The characteristic flavor of cabbage is caused by glucosinolates, a class of sulfur-containing glucosides. Although found throughout the plant, these compounds are concentrated in the highest quantities in the seeds; lesser quantities are found in young vegetative tissue, and they decrease as the tissue ages. Cooked cabbage is often criticized for its pungent, unpleasant odor and taste. These develop when cabbage is overcooked and hydrogen sulfide gas is produced.
Nutrients and phytochemicals
Raw cabbage is 92% water, 6% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, raw cabbage is a rich source of vitamin C
Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables, also sold as a dietary supplement and as a topical 'serum' ingredient to treat melasma (dark pigment spots) ...
and vitamin K
Vitamin K refers to structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamers found in foods and marketed as dietary supplements. The human body requires vitamin K for post-synthesis modification of certain proteins that are required for blood coagulation ...
, containing 44% and 72%, respectively, of the Daily Value (DV). Cabbage is also a moderate source (10–19% DV) of vitamin B6 and folate, with no other nutrients having significant content per 100-gram serving (table).
Basic research on cabbage phytochemicals is ongoing to discern if certain cabbage compounds may affect health or have potential for anti-disease effects, such as sulforaphane and other glucosinolates. Studies on cruciferous vegetables, including cabbage, include whether they may lower the risk against colon cancer. Cabbage is a source of indole-3-carbinol, a chemical under basic research for its possible properties.
Herbalism
In addition to its usual purpose as an edible vegetable, cabbage has been used historically in herbalism. The Ancient Greece, Ancient Greeks recommended consuming the vegetable as a laxative, and used cabbage juice as an antidote for mushroom poisoning, for eye salves, and for liniments for bruises. The ancient Roman, Pliny the Elder, described both culinary and medicinal properties of the vegetable. Ancient Egyptians ate cooked cabbage at the beginning of meals to reduce the intoxicating effects of wine. This traditional usage persisted in European literature until the mid-20th century.
The cooling properties of the leaves were used in Britain as a treatment for trench foot in World War I, and as compression bandage, compresses for ulcers and mastitis, breast abscesses. Other medicinal uses recorded in European traditional medicine, folk medicine include treatments for rheumatism, sore throat, Dysphonia, hoarseness, baby colic, colic, and Depression (mood), melancholy. Both mashed cabbage and cabbage juice have been used in poultices to remove boils and treat warts, pneumonia, appendicitis, and ulcers.
Disadvantages
Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased intestinal gas which causes bloating and flatulence due to the trisaccharide raffinose, which the human small intestine cannot digestion, digest, but is digested by bacteria in the large intestine.
Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of some food-borne illnesses, including ''Listeria monocytogenes'' and ''Clostridium botulinum''. The latter toxin has been traced to pre-made, packaged coleslaw mixes, while the spores were found on whole cabbages that were otherwise acceptable in appearance.[ ''Shigella'' species are able to survive in shredded cabbage.] Two outbreaks of ''Escherichia coli, E. coli'' in the United States have been linked to cabbage consumption. Biological risk assessments have concluded that there is the potential for further outbreaks linked to uncooked cabbage, due to contamination at many stages of the growing, harvesting and packaging processes. Contaminants from water, humans, animals and soil have the potential to be transferred to cabbage, and from there to the end consumer.
Whilst not a toxic vegetable, an increase in intestinal gas can lead to the death of many small animals like rabbits due to Gastrointestinal Stasis.
Cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables contain small amounts of thiocyanate, a compound associated with goiter formation when iodine deficiency, iodine intake is deficient.
See also
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References
Works cited
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External links
''Cabbages and Cauliflowers: How to Grow Them'' by James John Howard Gregory – Project Gutenberg.
{{Authority control
Cabbage,
Brassica oleracea,
Food plant cultivars
Leaf vegetables
Medicinal plants