Burundi Genocide
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Mass killings of
Tutsi The Tutsi (), or Abatutsi (), are an ethnic group of the African Great Lakes region. They are a Bantu-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in Rwanda and Burundi (the other two being the largest Bantu ethnic ...
s were conducted by the majority-
Hutu The Hutu (), also known as the Abahutu, are a Bantu ethnic or social group which is native to the African Great Lakes region. They mainly live in Rwanda, Burundi and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, where they form one of the p ...
populace in Burundi from 21 October to December 1993, under an eruption of ethnic animosity and riots following the assassination of Burundian President
Melchior Ndadaye Melchior Ndadaye (28 March 1953 – 21 October 1993) was a Burundian intellectual and politician. He was the first democratically elected and first Hutu president of Burundi after winning the landmark 1993 election. Though he moved to attempt to ...
in an attempted
coup d'état A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
. The massacres took place in all
provinces A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman '' provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions ou ...
apart from Makamba and
Bururi Bururi is a city located in southern Burundi. It is the capital city of Bururi Province Bururi Province is one of the eighteen provinces of Burundi. It was formerly Burundi's largest province until the communes of Burambi, Buyengero and Rumong ...
, and were primarily undertaken by Hutu peasants. At many points throughout, Tutsis took vengeance and initiated massacres in response. The
United Nations Population Fund The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), formerly the United Nations Fund for Population Activities, is a UN agency aimed at improving reproductive and maternal health worldwide. Its work includes developing national healthcare strategies a ...
and the
Government of Burundi The Politics of Burundi takes place in a framework of a transitional presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Burundi is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is ...
conducted study in 2002 which concluded that a total of 116,059 people died during the events. The question of whether the killings of Tutsis arose from a planned
genocide Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part. Raphael Lemkin coined the term in 1944, combining the Greek word (, "race, people") with the Lat ...
or from spontaneous violence remains heavily disputed among academics and Burundians who lived through the events.


Background

From the mid-1960s, the country of Burundi was politically dominated by its
Tutsi The Tutsi (), or Abatutsi (), are an ethnic group of the African Great Lakes region. They are a Bantu-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in Rwanda and Burundi (the other two being the largest Bantu ethnic ...
ethnic minority at the expense of the
Hutu The Hutu (), also known as the Abahutu, are a Bantu ethnic or social group which is native to the African Great Lakes region. They mainly live in Rwanda, Burundi and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, where they form one of the p ...
majority. Union pour le Progrès National (UPRONA), which served as the legal ruling party from 1966, was overwhelmingly made up of Tutsis. Military officers dominated the presidency, coming to power through coups. During this time there were instances of ethnic repression, particularly in 1972 when the
Burundian Army The ''Burundi'' National Defence Force (french: Force de defense nationale ''du Burundi'', or FDNB) is the state military organisation responsible for the defence of Burundi. A general staff (''État-Major Général'') commands the armed forces, ...
quashed a Hutu rebellion and then murdered thousands of civilians. In 1987
Pierre Buyoya Pierre Buyoya (24 November 1949 – 17 December 2020) was a Burundian army officer and politician who served two terms as President of Burundi in 1987 to 1993 and 1996 to 2003. He was the second-longest serving president in Burundian history. An ...
became
President of Burundi The president of Burundi, officially the President of the Republic (French: ''Président de la République''), is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Burundi. The president is also commander-in-chief of the National Def ...
following a coup. He initially ignored the country's ethnic strife and perpetuated Tutsi domination of public life. In August 1988 violence broke out and the army massacred thousands of Hutus. Facing substantial foreign pressure, Buyoya initiated reforms designed to end Burundi's systemic ethnic violence, while UPRONA attempted to incorporate more Hutus into its ranks. The Tutsi establishment in the army and security forces nevertheless resisted change. A commission appointed by the president produced a constitution which provided for democratic elections. The document was adopted via referendum in March 1992 followed shortly thereafter by the creation of new political parties. Buyoya scheduled free elections in 1993 and offered himself as UPRONA's presidential candidate. UPRONA's main challenger became Front pour la Démocratie au Burundi (FRODEBU), a party largely associated with Hutus. In the 1 June presidential election Buyoya faced
Melchior Ndadaye Melchior Ndadaye (28 March 1953 – 21 October 1993) was a Burundian intellectual and politician. He was the first democratically elected and first Hutu president of Burundi after winning the landmark 1993 election. Though he moved to attempt to ...
, who was backed by FRODEBU. Ndadaye won the election in a landslide, earning 64 percent of the popular vote. In the subsequent parliamentary elections on 29 June, FRODEBU won 71.4 percent of the vote and earned 80 percent of the seats in the
National Assembly In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the rep ...
. The party also took over most local administration.


Prelude

Rumours circulated in Burundi that the army would attempt to intervene to disrupt the transition. A plot from a handful of officers discovered on 3 July to seize Ndadaye's residence failed due to a lack of support from other components of the military, resulting in several arrests. Ndadaye was sworn-in as President on 10 July. He assembled a government of 23 ministers, including 13 FRODEBU and six UPRONA members. Nine of the ministers were Tutsi, including Prime Minister
Sylvie Kinigi Sylvie Kinigi (born 24 November 1953) is a Burundian politician and economist who served as Prime Minister of Burundi from 10 July 1993 to 7 February 1994, and acting president from November 1993 to 5 February 1994, making her the second African ...
, a member of UPRONA. Ndadaye's tenure was largely peaceful, but during his time in office Burundi was subject to several social and political disruptions. Among the former, the media—recently liberalised—often used its freedom to discuss public issues in an inflammatory manner. Thousands of Burundian Hutu refugees who had fled during the violence of 1972 began returning ''en masse'' and demanding the reclamation of their property. Though Ndadaye suggested resettling them in vacant lands, many local officials made room for them by evicting others from their homes. Politically, Ndadaye's government reexamined several contracts and economic concessions made the by the previous regime, posing a threat to Tutsi elite business interests. Military reforms also led to the separation of the gendarmerie's command from the army, the replacement of the chiefs of staff of the army and gendarmerie, and new requirements for enrollment into the army were introduced. The army was due to open its annual recruitment drive in November, and there were fears among some Tutsi soldiers that this process would be altered in a way that would threaten their dominance of the institution. At some point a group of army personnel began planning a coup against Ndadaye's government. Their exact identity remains disputed.


Massacres

Tensions finally reaching the boiling point on 21 October 1993 when President Ndadaye was assassinated during a coup attempt, and the country descended into a period of civil strife. The Rwanda-based
Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM) ( rw, Radiyo yigenga y'imisozi igihumbi) was a Rwandan radio station which broadcast from July 8, 1993 to July 31, 1994. It played a significant role in inciting the Rwandan genocide that took place from April to July 1994, and has been d ...
(RTLM) reported that a coup had taken place and that Ndadaye had been captured on 21 October. This led young FRODEBU members to arm themselves and take Tutsis and Hutu UPRONA members hostage. Once RTLM announced later that day that Ndadaye was dead, the hostages were executed. By 22 October, Hutus were attacking Tutsis in the provinces of Kirundo, Ngozi,
Gitega Gitega (), formerly Kitega, is the political capital of Burundi. Located in the centre of the country, in the Burundian central plateau roughly east of Bujumbura (the largest city and former political capital), Gitega (the second largest city) ...
,
Muyinga Muyinga is a city located in northern Burundi. It is the capital city of Muyinga Province. It lies at an altitude of 1731 m and has a population of 100,715. Populated places in Burundi {{Burundi-geo-stub ...
,
Ruyigi Ruyigi is a city located in eastern Burundi. It is the capital city of Ruyigi Province. It is served by Ruyigi Airport, a grass airstrip An aerodrome (Commonwealth English) or airdrome (American English) is a location from which aircraft ...
, and
Karuzi Karuzi is a city located in eastern Burundi. It is the capital city of Karuzi Province. On 8 June 2020, Burundian president Pierre Nkurunziza died in Karuzi from cardiac arrest Cardiac arrest is when the heart suddenly and unexpectedly stop ...
, and in parts of
Kayanza Kayanza is a city located in northern Burundi Burundi (, ), officially the Republic of Burundi ( rn, Repuburika y’Uburundi ; Swahili: ''Jamuhuri ya Burundi''; French: ''République du Burundi'' ), is a landlocked country in the Great Ri ...
,
Muramvya Muramvya is a city located in central Burundi. It is the capital city of Muramvya Province Muramvya Province is one of the 18 provinces of Burundi. The capital city is Muramvya. In 2007 the province was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tent ...
,
Rutana Rutana is a town in southern Burundi. It lies west of Mount Kikizi, one of the highest mountains in the nation. The Kagera Falls lie near the town. It is the capital of Rutana Province, one of the 18 provinces of Burundi Burundi (, ), ...
, and Bujumbura Rural. Violence was less intensive in the Cibitoke and Bubanza Provinces in the northwest and
Cankuzo Province Cankuzo Province is one of the 18 provinces of Burundi. Located in the eastern part of the country, the province covers an area of 1,965 km. The provincial capital is Cankuzo. It is Burundi's least populated province. Communes Cankuzo Provi ...
in the east. Only the provinces of Makamba and
Bururi Bururi is a city located in southern Burundi. It is the capital city of Bururi Province Bururi Province is one of the eighteen provinces of Burundi. It was formerly Burundi's largest province until the communes of Burambi, Buyengero and Rumong ...
completely avoided the violence. Hutu peasants were primarily involved, though in some instances FRODEBU members in provincial and communal governments engaged in anti-Tutsi violence. In Butzei, one FRODEBU administrator was reported to have arranged for over three dozen Tutsi civil servants to be burnt. In several instances Tutsis engaged in reprisals. The retaliatory violence was particularly acute in the provinces of Karuzi, Gitega, and Ruyigi. On 24 October in Ruyigi town, Tutsis murdered 78 Hutu civil servants who were seeking refuge at a bishop's compound. The Tutsi-dominated army also engaged in reprisal killings. One of the few exceptions to this was in Karuzi Province, where the local commander, Major Martin Nkurikiye, went unarmed with two FRODEBU parliamentarians into villages to try to convince armed Hutus to stand down. The army protected Tutsis by resettling them in fortified villages. Minister of Health
Jean Minani Jean Minani is a Burundian politician. He served as President of the National Assembly of Burundi from December 1994 to January 1995 and from January 2002 to August 2005. In 1995, Minani became President of the Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODE ...
—who was in Rwanda at the time—accused the army of committing genocide. In November the Permanent Francophone Council condemned the killings. Initial estimates of the death toll from the ethnic violence ranged from 25,000 to 500,000. A joint study conducted by the
United Nations Population Fund The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), formerly the United Nations Fund for Population Activities, is a UN agency aimed at improving reproductive and maternal health worldwide. Its work includes developing national healthcare strategies a ...
and the Burundian government in 2002 estimated the number of people killed from 21 October to 31 December 1993 to be 116,059, with at least 100,000 deaths occurring in late October. It remains unclear what proportion of these victims were Tutsi and what proportion were Hutu.


Aftermath

In 1997, the Burundian government passed a law which penalised genocide and crimes against humanity. Later that year, the government charged hundreds of persons accused of responsibility in the killings of Tutsis, with 44 being sentenced to death. In 2014 the
Truth and Reconciliation Commission A truth commission, also known as a truth and reconciliation commission or truth and justice commission, is an official body tasked with discovering and revealing past wrongdoing by a government (or, depending on the circumstances, non-state act ...
(TRC) was established to investigate crimes committed during ethnic violence since independence in 1962.


Assessment of the violence as genocide

In May 1994, a UN preliminary fact-finding commission determined that the massacres of Tutsis were not part of "any premeditated plan for the extermination of the Tutsi ethnic group by the Hutu". Conversely, the following year the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi concluded that the killings constituted "an effort to completely destroy the Tutsi ethnic group. Tutsis were not simply killed in a spurt of violence, but systematically hunted...evidence is sufficient to establish that acts of genocide against the Tutsi minority took place in Burundi on 21 October 1993, and the days following". The commission noted that "the evidence is insufficient to determine whether or not these acts of genocide were planned or ordered by leaders at a higher level". FRODEBU accused the commission of bias and capitulating to demands of Tutsi politicians, church figures, and journalists to have their ethnic group's losses labeled genocide. The question of whether the killings of Tutsis arose from a planned genocide or from spontaneous violence remains heavily disputed among academics and Burundians who lived through the events. Burundian Tutsi authors maintain that the killings were premeditated. Political scientist
Filip Reyntjens Filip Reyntjens (born 1952) is professor emeritus at University of Antwerp. His academic training is in constitutional law, but he later pivoted towards the study of politics especially of the Great Lakes region of Africa. Career In 1975, while ...
wrote in 1995 that "there is no evidence that a genocidal plan ever existed, and the allegations that it did were part of a strategy to exonerate the army and to implicate FRODEBU." Academic Nigel Watt considered the violence to be a "double genocide", with the first one being perpetrated by Hutus against Tutsis, and the second being by the army against Hutus. He also wrote that there was no evidence that plans to kill Tutsis were formulated on a national scale but that "the speed of the mobilisation suggests that some people feared coupmight happen and made preparations."


Legacy

The killings have received little coverage in international media or academia. Des Forges wrote that, "The lack of international response to the killing in Burundi led to the cataclysm in Rwanda". Burundian Tutsis attach more significance to the 1993 massacres relative to the 1972
Ikiza The Ikiza (variously translated from Kirundi as the Catastrophe, the Great Calamity, and the Scourge), or the Ubwicanyi (Killings), was a series of mass killings—often characterised as a genocide—which were committed in Burundi in 1972 by th ...
, which Hutus emphasise. Some Burundians perceive both events as genocides worthy of remembrance, but generally factions have formed to claim the precedence of one event over the other and commemorate them accordingly. Radical Tutsi ideologues, while stressing that the 1993 events were a genocide targeting Tutsis, often neglect to mention the thousands of Hutus killed by the army during the same period and the flight of thousands more as refugees to Rwanda. Tutsi academics tend to give Ndadaye's assassination only cursory attention in their histories of the violence. In contrast, Hutu writers usually emphasise the killing of Ndadaye and the massacres of Hutus inflicted by the army and ignore the killings of Tutsis. The Tutsi extremist group AC Genocide-Crimoso later established several monuments to commemorate Tutsis killed in 1993. The Burundian government erected a monument in 2010 to commemorate victims of all post-colonial violence in the country.


See also

*
Rwandan genocide The Rwandan genocide occurred between 7 April and 15 July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War. During this period of around 100 days, members of the Tutsi minority ethnic group, as well as some moderate Hutu and Twa, were killed by armed H ...


References


Works cited

* * * * * *Lemarchand, René (1996). ''Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide'', Cambridge University Press, * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

*United Nations Committee on the elimination of racial discrimination, Fifty-first session, Summary record of the 1239th meeting. Held at the Palais des Nations, Geneva, 20 August 1997
Seventh to tenth periodic reports of Burundi (continued) (CERD/C/295/Add.1)

Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination : Burundi
18 September 1997. *René Lemarchand. "The Burundi Genocide". Century of Genocide. Ed. Samuel Totten ''et al.'' New York: Routledge, 2004. 321–337.

News about Burundi crimes since 1962, by Agnews (2000) {{Authority control 1993 in Burundi 1993 murders in Africa Massacres in 1993 Ethnic cleansing in Africa Genocides in Africa Massacres in Burundi Human rights abuses in Burundi Racially motivated violence Ethnic conflicts