Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of
Mahayana Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
which has shaped
Chinese culture
Chinese culture () is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia and is extremely diverse and varying, with customs and traditions varying grea ...
in a wide variety of areas including
art
Art is a diverse range of human activity, and resulting product, that involves creative or imaginative talent expressive of technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or conceptual ideas.
There is no generally agreed definition of wha ...
, politics,
literature,
philosophy,
medicine and material culture. Chinese Buddhism is the largest institutionalized religion in
Mainland China.
[Cook, Sarah (2017). ]
The Battle for China's Spirit: Religious Revival, Repression, and Resistance under Xi Jinping.
' Freedom House Report. Rowman & Littlefield. Currently, there are an estimated 185 to 250 million Chinese Buddhists in the
People's Republic of China.
It is also a major religion in
Taiwan,
Singapore, and
Malaysia, as well as among the
Chinese Diaspora
Overseas Chinese () refers to people of Chinese birth or ethnicity who reside outside Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. As of 2011, there were over 40.3 million overseas Chinese.
Terminology
() or ''Hoan-kheh'' () in Hokkien, ref ...
.
Buddhism was first introduced to China during the
Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE). The translation of a large body of
Indian Buddhist scriptures into
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of v ...
and the inclusion of these translations (along with
Taoist and
Confucian works) into a
Chinese Buddhist canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
throughout the
East Asian cultural sphere
The East Asian cultural sphere, also known as the Sinosphere, the Sinic world, the Sinitic world, the Chinese cultural sphere, the Chinese character sphere encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically ...
, including
Korea,
Japan and
Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, including
Tiantai,
Huayan,
Chan Buddhism
Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and S ...
and
Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wide ...
.
From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by native
Chinese religions
The People's Republic of China is officially an atheist state, but the government formally recognizes five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity (Catholicism and Protestantism are recognised separately), and Islam. In the early 21st ce ...
and
philosophy, especially
Confucianism and
Taoism, but also
Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
.
History
260px, Buddhist temple at Wutaishan
The establishment of Buddhism in China
Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism to
China during the
Han dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE) and the religion was present in China at the beginning of the common era.
[Poceski, Mario. "Chinese Buddhism" in ''The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions'' (pp. 197-218) edited Randall L. Nadeau. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.] Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central Asian
Silk Road and the
Maritime
Maritime may refer to:
Geography
* Maritime Alps, a mountain range in the southwestern part of the Alps
* Maritime Region, a region in Togo
* Maritime Southeast Asia
* The Maritimes, the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Pri ...
routes. Initially Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with
Daoism
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' T ...
. The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions. There was also much criticism leveled at the new foreign religion by the
Confucian elites.
One of the central tasks of the initial missionaries was the translation of Buddhist texts. The first surviving translations of
Buddhist texts
Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts a ...
into Chinese were those of the 2nd century
Parthian An Shigao
An Shigao (, Korean: An Sego, Japanese: An Seikō, Vietnamese: An Thế Cao) (fl. c. 148-180 CE) was an early Buddhist missionary to China, and the earliest known translator of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese. According to legend, he was a pri ...
(Ch. ), who worked in the capital of
Luoyang. His work was followed by the extensive
Mahāyāna translations of the
Kushan
The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, 貴霜 ) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, ...
monk
Lokakṣema (Ch. , active c. 164–186 CE) as well as the work of
Dharmaraksa (3rd century).
During this early period the
Dharmaguptaka school was very influential in establishing Buddhism in China. This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school's
Vinaya
The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions rema ...
(monastic rule) by all Chinese Buddhist schools''.''
The arrival of the
Kuchan
Quchan ( fa, قوچان ' ; also Romanized as Qūchān and Quçan; also known as Khabushan, Gochan) is a city and capital of Quchan County, in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. It is located due south of the border city of Ashgabat. At the 2006 c ...
scholar
Kumārajīva
Kumārajīva ( Sanskrit: कुमारजीव; , 344–413 CE) was a Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha (present-day Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang, China). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greates ...
(334–413 CE) was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor. The numerous high quality translations of his translation team had a great impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing the
Madhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhis ...
school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be called
Sanlun (the "Three Treatise school").
[Mair, Victor H.; Sanping Chen, Wood, Frances (2013). ''Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization,'' #28, Kumarajiva. Thames & Hudson.] His work also established a thoroughly Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by
Daoist philosophy
Taoist philosophy (Chinese: ; pinyin: '; ) also known as Taology refers to the various philosophical currents of Taoism, a tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the ''Dào'' (, also romanized as ''Tao''). The ' is ...
.
[Fan Muyou. ''A Reexamination of the Influence of Kumārajīva's Thought on His Translation of the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa''. The Eastern Buddhist 47/1: 57-80 ©2018 The Eastern Buddhist Society.]
Another important translator of this period was
Paramārtha (''Zhēndì'', 499-569 CE). Paramārtha along with his team of Chinese disciples translated numerous works on
Abhidharma
The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...
,
Yogacara philosophy and other Mahayana texts.
[Radich, Michael. ]
The Doctrine of *Amalavijnana in Paramartha (499-569), and Later Authors to Approximately 800 C.E.
' ''Zinbun'' 41:45-174 (2009) Copy BIBTEX[Keng Ching and Michael Radich]
"Paramārtha." ''Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Volume II: Lives''
edited by Jonathan A. Silk (editor-in chief), Richard Bowring, Vincent Eltschinger, and Michael Radich, 752-758. Leiden, Brill, 2019.
The
Dunhuang and
Yungang cave complexes are a great example of early Chinese Buddhist art.
The development of a Chinese Buddhism
The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including:
* The
Tiantai school was mainly founded by the efforts of master
Zhiyi
Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi is ...
(538–597 CE) and was based on the ''
Lotus Sutra'' and the works of Zhiyi.
* The
Huayan (''
Avatamsaka Sutra
The ' (IAST, sa, 𑀅𑀯𑀢𑀁𑀲𑀓 𑀲𑀽𑀢𑁆𑀭) or ''Buddhāvataṃsaka-nāma-mahāvaipulya-sūtra (The Mahāvaipulya Sūtra named “Buddhāvataṃsaka”)'' is one of the most influential Mahāyāna sutras of East Asian B ...
'') school, based on the works of Chinese masters like
Dushun
Dushun () (557–640) was the First Patriarch of the Huayan School of Chinese Buddhism, which has the Indian Avatamsaka Sutra as its central scripture.
Biography
Dushun was born in present-day Shaanxi province. He ordained at the age of sevente ...
(557–640),
Zhiyan
Zhiyan () (602–668) was a Chinese Buddhist monk who is considered the second patriarch of the Chinese Buddhist Huayan school. Zhiyan was born in the second year of the reign of Emperor Wen of Sui. He was a devotee of the ''Avatamsaka Sutra'' and ...
(602–668) and
Fazang
Fazang () (643–712) was the third of the five patriarchs of the Huayan school of Mahayana Buddhism, of which he is traditionally considered the founder. He was an important and influential philosopher, so much so that it has been claimed that he ...
(643–712).
* The
Pure Land tradition, which is based on the veneration of
Amitabha and the works of Pure Land masters like
Tanluan
Tánluán (, 476–542) was a Chinese Buddhist monk. He is credited by Hōnen as the founder of Pure Land Buddhism in China. He is also considered the Third Patriarch of Jōdo Shinshū, a popular school of Buddhism in Japan.
Tanluan was origin ...
(476–542),
Daochuo (562–645), and
Shandao (613–81).
*
Chan Buddhism
Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and S ...
, based on the teachings of various Chan masters such as
Bodhidharma
Bodhidharma was a semi-legendary Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th or 6th century CE. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Chan Buddhism to China, and regarded as its first Chinese patriarch. According to a 17th century ap ...
,
Dazu Huike
Dazu Huike (487–593; ) is considered the Second Patriarch of Chan Buddhism and the twenty-ninth since Gautama Buddha. The successor to Bodhidharma.
Biography
Sources
As with most of the early Chán patriarchs, very little firm data is availabl ...
(487–593),
Sengcan (?–606),
Dayi Daoxin (580–651) and
Hongren (601–674).
During the
Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), the monk
Xuanzang (602-664) journeyed to India and back, and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period.
Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a translation team which is responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works. His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic
Yogacara (Consciousness-only) tradition in East Asia.
The Tang era was one of the golden ages of Buddhism in China.
During this time, a
sinicized
Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix , 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies come under the influence of Chinese culture, particularly the language, societal norms, cul ...
Buddhism was widely accepted and practiced throughout the empire at this time, with many monasteries and temples. Buddhism was popular with all social classes and was very influential on
Chinese culture
Chinese culture () is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia and is extremely diverse and varying, with customs and traditions varying grea ...
.
Buddhist themes can be found in much of the literature of this period, such as in the works of famous poets like
Wang Wei (701 – 761) and
Bo Juyi (772 – 846). The various artistic complexes from this period, such as the
Longmen Grottoes
The Longmen Grottoes () or Longmen Caves are some of the finest examples of Chinese Buddhist art. Housing tens of thousands of statues of Shakyamuni Buddha and his disciples, they are located south of present-day Luoyang in Henan province ...
also attest to the artistic vibrancy of Chinese Buddhism at this time.
A famous proponent of Buddhism during the Tang era was empress
Wu Zetian (r. 690–705) and she is known for her promotion of the
Longmen cave complex.
She also depicted herself as a bodhisattva.
The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival of
Śubhakarasiṃha
Śubhakarasiṃha (637-735 CE) () was an eminent Indian Buddhist monk and master of Esoteric Buddhism, who arrived in the Chinese capital Chang'an (now Xi'an) in 716 CE and translated the ', better known as the ''Mahāvairocana Sūtra''. Four ...
,
Vajrabodhi
Vajrabodhi ( sa, वज्रबोधि, , 671–741) was an Indian esoteric Buddhist monk from Kerala and teacher in Tang China. He is one of the eight patriarchs in Shingon Buddhism. He is notable for introducing Vajrayana Buddhism in the ...
, and
Amoghavajra
Amoghavajra ( sa, अमोघवज्र ; , 705–774) was a prolific translator who became one of the most politically powerful Buddhist monks in Chinese history and is acknowledged as one of the Eight Patriarchs of the Doctrine in Shingo ...
, and their establishment of
Esoteric Buddhism in China from CE 716 to 720 during the reign of emperor
Xuanzong. This Chinese form of
Vajrayana Buddhism
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
now became popular with the elites and by the time of emperor
Tang Daizong
Emperor Daizong of Tang (9 January 727 According to Daizong's biography in the ''Old Book of Tang'', he was born on the 13th day in the 12th month of the 14th year of the Kaiyuan era of Tang Xuanzong's reign. This date corresponds to 9 Jan 727 i ...
(r. 762–779) its influence among the upper classes was significant.
The
Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution (841–845) under Emperor
Tang Wuzong
Emperor Wuzong of Tang (July 2, 814 – April 22, 846), né Li Chan, later changed to Li Yan just before his death, was an emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, reigning from 840 to 846. Emperor Wuzong is mainly known in modern times for the r ...
greatly impacted and weakened the Buddhist institutions in China. Perhaps the main reason for this persecution was the Chinese state's need for tax and wealth.
The
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979), an era of great political upheaval and
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policie ...
also negatively impacted Chinese Buddhism. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period.
The
Song Dynasty (960–1279) saw the flourishing of Chinese Buddhist culture.
During the Song,
Chan Buddhism
Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and S ...
grew to become the most influential school with close ties to the imperial government and a highly organized system of temple rank and administration system developed. It was during this time that the classic
Five Houses of Chan developed. Many classic Chan texts were written during this era, such as the famed
koan
A (; , ; ko, 화두, ; vi, công án) is a story, dialogue, question, or statement which is used in Zen practice to provoke the "great doubt" and to practice or test a student's progress in Zen.
Etymology
The Japanese term is the Sino-Jap ...
collections of the
Linji school
The Línjì school () is a school of Chan Buddhism named after Linji Yixuan (d. 866). It took prominence in Song China (960–1279), spread to Japan as the Rinzai school and influenced the nine mountain schools of Korean Seon.
History
Song dyn ...
, like the ''
Blue Cliff Record
The ''Blue Cliff Record'' () is a collection of Chan Buddhist kōans originally compiled in Song China in 1125, during the reign of Emperor Huizong, and then expanded into its present form by Chan master Yuanwu Keqin (1063–1135; ).K. Sekida, ...
'' (1125) and ''
The Gateless Gate
''The Gateless Barrier'' (Mandarin: 無門關 ''Wúménguān''; Japanese: 無門関 ''Mumonkan''), sometimes translated as ''The Gateless Gate'', is a collection of 48 Chan ( Zen) koans compiled in the early 13th century by the Chinese Zen mast ...
'' (1228).
Likewise, during this time, the works of
Hongzhi Zhengjue
Hongzhi Zhengjue (, ), also sometimes called Tiantong Zhengjue (; ) (1091–1157), was an influential Chinese Chan Buddhist monk who authored or compiled several influential texts. Hongzhi's conception of ''silent illumination'' is of particular ...
(1091-1157) developed the silent sitting method of "silent illumination". Both of these traditions of Chan practice were very influential (and remain so) on East Asian
Zen Buddhism
Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), an ...
(including on
Japanese Zen
:''See also Zen for an overview of Zen, Chan Buddhism for the Chinese origins, and Sōtō, Rinzai and Ōbaku for the three main schools of Zen in Japan''
Japanese Zen refers to the Japanese forms of Zen Buddhism, an originally Chinese Mah� ...
,
Korean Seon
Seon or Sŏn Buddhism (Korean: 선, 禪; IPA: ʌn is the Korean name for Chan Buddhism, a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism commonly known in English as Zen Buddhism. Seon is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of Chan () an abbreviation of 禪那 ...
and
Vietnamese Thien).
The
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) patronized
Tibetan Buddhism and thus during this period there was a steady growth of this tradition in China.
[Nan Huai-Chin. ''Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen''. York Beach: Samuel Weiser. 1997. p. 99.] A common perception was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread.
When the Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the
Ming dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as not being an orthodox path.
During the
Ming dynasty (1368–1644) there was a revival of the study of native Chinese traditions like
Tiantai,
Huayan,
Yogacara and most monks belonged to the two dominant Chan schools:
Linji and
Caodong
Caodong school () is a Chinese Chan Buddhist sect and one of the Five Houses of Chán.
Etymology
The key figure in the Caodong school was founder Dongshan Liangjie (807-869, 洞山良价 or Jpn. Tozan Ryokai). Some attribute the name "Cáodòng ...
.
At this point in its history Chinese Buddhism had also become quite eclectic, drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure of
Hanshan Deqing
Hānshān Déqīng () (1546–1623), formerly transliterated Han-Shan Te-Ch’ing, was a leading Buddhist monk and poet of Ming dynasty China who widely propagated the teachings of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism.
Life
According to his autobio ...
, one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism.
[Keown, Damien. ''A Dictionary of Buddhism''. 2003. p. 104] Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods.
[Keown, Damien. ''A Dictionary of Buddhism''. 2003. p. 104] He also directed practitioners in the use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and admired for his strict adherence to the precepts.
Modernity
During the
Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the imperial court shifted its support to the
Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism.
[Mullin 2001, p. 358] Chinese Buddhism suffered much during the various imperial and internal conflicts of the Qing dynasty, especially the devastating
Taiping rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion, also known as the Taiping Civil War or the Taiping Revolution, was a massive rebellion and civil war that was waged in China between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the Han, Hakka-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. It lasted ...
(December 1850 – August 1864), which saw many temples destroyed and scriptures burned by rebels. This era also saw the arrival of
Christian missionaries
A Christian mission is an organized effort for the propagation of the Christian faith. Missions involve sending individuals and groups across boundaries, most commonly geographical boundaries, to carry on evangelism or other activities, such as ...
to China, a right which had been granted to Western powers after the
Opium Wars
The Opium Wars () were two conflicts waged between China and Western powers during the mid-19th century. The First Opium War was fought from 1839 to 1842 between China and the United Kingdom, and was triggered by the Chinese government's cam ...
.
During the
Republican Period (1912-1949), there were various attempts to reform and modernize Chinese Buddhism and to respond to the various challenges of modernity.
The most notable of these reformers were the
Humanistic Buddhists like
Taixu and
Yin Shun. Humanistic Buddhism sought to move away from ritualistic and otherworldly obsessions to embrace more this worldly pursuits like
education and
charitable
The practice of charity is the voluntary giving of help to those in need, as a humanitarian act, unmotivated by self-interest. There are a number of philosophies about charity, often associated with religion.
Etymology
The word ''charity'' or ...
work.
There was also a revival of
Chinese Chan
Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and S ...
by
Hsu Yun
Xuyun or Hsu Yun (; 5 September 1840? – 13 October 1959) was a renowned Chinese Chan Buddhist master and an influential Buddhist teacher of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Early life
Xuyun was purportedly born on 5 September 1840 in Fujian, Q ...
and
Sheng Yen
Sheng Yen (), born Zhang Baokang (), (January 22, 1931 – February 3, 2009) was a Taiwanese Buddhist monk, religious scholar, and writer. He was one of the mainstream teachers of Chan Buddhism. He was a 57th generational dharma heir of Lin ...
,
as well as a revival of Tiantai Buddhism by Dixian and
Tanxu
Tanxu (; July 3, 1875 – August 11, 1963) was a Chinese Buddhist monk and a 44th generation lineage holder of the Tiantai school, taught by Master Dixian. Tanxu is known as one of the most influential monks to have had lived during the late Qing ...
(1875 – 1963).
After the
communist takeover of Mainland China, many Buddhists and monastics followed the Republican exodus to
Taiwan. In the latter half of the twentieth century, many new Buddhist temples and organizations were set up by the exiles in Taiwan, including
Fo Guang Shan,
Dharma Drum Mountain
Dharma Drum Mountain (DDM; ) is an international Buddhist spiritual, cultural, and educational foundation founded by late Chan master Sheng-yen (1931 – 2009). The center focuses on educating the public in Buddhism with the goal of improving th ...
and
Tzu Chi.
These organizations also became influential back in
Mainland China after the end of the
Cultural Revolution.
Chinese Buddhism suffered extensive repression, persecution and destruction during the
Cultural Revolution (from 1966 until
Mao Zedong's death in 1976).
Maoist
Maoism, officially called Mao Zedong Thought by the Chinese Communist Party, is a variety of Marxism–Leninism that Mao Zedong developed to realise a socialist revolution in the agricultural, pre-industrial society of the Republic of Chi ...
propaganda depicted
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
as one of the
four olds
The Four Olds or the Four Old Things () was a term used during the Cultural Revolution by the student-led Red Guards in the People's Republic of China in reference to the pre- communist elements of Chinese culture they attempted to destroy. The ...
, as a
superstitious instrument of the ruling class and as
counter-revolutionary
A counter-revolutionary or an anti-revolutionary is anyone who opposes or resists a revolution, particularly one who acts after a revolution in order to try to overturn it or reverse its course, in full or in part. The adjective "counter-revoluti ...
.
[Yu, Dan Smyer. "Delayed contention with the Chinese Marxist scapegoat complex: re-membering Tibetan Buddhism in the PRC". ''The Tibet Journal'', 32.1 (2007)] Buddhist
Clergy
Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...
were attacked, disrobed, arrested and sent to camps. Buddhist writings were burned. Buddhist temples, monasteries and art were systematically destroyed and Buddhist lay believers ceased any public displays of their religion.
During the normalization period (
Boluan Fanzheng
Boluan Fanzheng () or Poluan Fancheng, was a period in the history of People's Republic of China during which Deng Xiaoping, then paramount leader of China, led a far-reaching program attempting to correct the mistakes of the Cultural Revolut ...
, 1977 to early 80s) led by
Deng Xiaoping
Deng Xiaoping (22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary leader, military commander and statesman who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989. After CCP ...
, a new revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place. This was a period which saw the restoration of damaged Buddhist temples like
Guoqing Temple
The Guoqing Temple () is a Buddhist temple on Mount Tiantai, in Taizhou, Zhejiang Province, China. Originally built in 598 CE during the Sui dynasty, and renovated during the reign of the Qing Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1722–1735), the temple is l ...
and
Guanghua Temple as well as the return of monastic ordination and Buddhist institutions. Monks like Zhenchan (真禪) and Mengcan (夢參), who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, traveled widely throughout China as well as other countries such as the United States and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings.
Monks who had fled overseas were also allowed back into the mainland.
During the late 20th century, Chinese Buddhism also became established in some Western countries, especially in the
USA. The first Chinese master to teach Westerners in North America was
Hsuan Hua
Hsuan Hua (; April 16, 1918 – June 7, 1995), also known as An Tzu, Tu Lun and Master Hua by his Western disciples, was a Chinese monk of Chan Buddhism and a contributing figure in bringing Chinese Buddhism to the United States in the la ...
, who went on to found the
City Of Ten Thousand Buddhas
The City of Ten Thousand Buddhas () is an international Buddhist community and monastery founded by Hsuan Hua, an important figure in Western Buddhism. It is one of the first Chan Buddhist temples in the United States, and one of the largest B ...
.
Chuang Yen Monastery
Chuang Yen Monastery () is a Buddhist temple situated on in Kent, Putnam County, New York, in the United States. The temple is home to the largest indoor statue of a Buddha (Vairocana) in the Western Hemisphere. The name "Chuang Yen" means "Maje ...
(
New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
New York may also refer to:
Film and television
* ...
) and
Hsi Lai Temple (
Los Angeles) are other large Chinese Buddhist temples in the USA.Teaching and Practice
Teaching and Practice
Volunteers of the Buddhist Tzu Chi Foundation at a health screening event for foreign workers in
.">Taipei.
Doctrine and texts
Chinese Buddhism is a
sinicized
Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix , 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies come under the influence of Chinese culture, particularly the language, societal norms, cul ...
form of
Mahāyāna Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bran ...
which draws on the
Chinese Buddhist Canon (大藏經, ''Dàzàngjīng'', "Great Storage of Scriptures") as well as numerous Chinese traditions. Chinese Buddhism focuses on studying
Mahayana sutras and Mahāyāna treatises and draws its main doctrines from these sources. Some of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism include: the ''
Lotus Sutra'', the ''
Flower Ornament Sutra'', the
''Vimalakirtī Sutra'', the ''
Nirvana Sutra
( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lamp Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colombo. ...
,'' and the
''Amitābha Sutra''.
As such, Chinese Buddhism follows the classic Mahāyāna Buddhist worldview, which includes belief in many
realms of existence, the existence of many
Buddhas
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
and
bodhisattvas
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
(菩薩) as well as many other kinds of divine beings, ghosts and so on.
Chinese Buddhism also upholds classic Mahāyāna Buddhist doctrines like
karma
Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
() and
rebirth (), the
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
path, and the doctrines of
emptiness
Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression, loneliness, anhedonia,
despair, or other mental/emotional disorders, including schizoid ...
(空, ''kōng''),
buddha-nature
Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
(佛性, ''fóxìng'') and the
one vehicle (一乘, ''yīchéng'').
When it comes to
Buddhist philosophy, Chinese Buddhism contains various
doctrinal
Doctrine (from la, doctrina, meaning "teaching, instruction") is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a given branch of knowledge or in a belief syste ...
traditions, the most important being the
Tiantai,
Huayan,
Sanlun and
Weishi schools of thought.
These different doctrinal traditions developed their own scriptural commentaries and treatises and also various doctrinal classifications (
panjiao) which hierarchically ordered the mass of Buddhist scriptures in order to advance their school's
hermeneutical
Hermeneutics () is the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially the interpretation of biblical texts, wisdom literature, and philosophical texts. Hermeneutics is more than interpretative principles or methods used when immediate c ...
worldview.
For example, according to master
Zhiyi's "eight teachings and five periods" classification, the final and supreme teaching of the Buddha is found in the
Lotus Sutra and the
Nirvana Sutra
( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lamp Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colombo. ...
.
According to the Huayan masters like
Fazang
Fazang () (643–712) was the third of the five patriarchs of the Huayan school of Mahayana Buddhism, of which he is traditionally considered the founder. He was an important and influential philosopher, so much so that it has been claimed that he ...
, the Huayan sutra contains the supreme teaching, while the Weishi school held that the
Yogacara texts where the "third turning" of the Dharma, and thus the final and ultimate teaching of the Buddha.
Practices
Chinese Buddhism contains a wide array of religious practices and observances. Ritual and devotional practices are commonly seen as generating karmic
merit
Merit may refer to:
Religion
* Merit (Christianity)
* Merit (Buddhism)
* Punya (Hinduism)
* Imputed righteousness in Reformed Christianity
Companies and brands
* Merit (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes made by Altria
* Merit Energy Company ...
, which can bring about positive results in this life or the next.
According to Mario Poceski, for the vast majority of ordinary Chinese Buddhists "prevalent expressions of Buddhist piety were (and still are) channeled via a variety of popular modes of worship and ritual observance."
Worship
Worship is an act of religious devotion usually directed towards a deity. It may involve one or more of activities such as veneration, adoration, praise, and praying. For many, worship is not about an emotion, it is more about a recognition ...
services can include
Buddhist devotional practices like offerings to an altar (of items like incense, flowers, food, and candles), ceremonial bowing, and extensive liturgies (including repentance ceremonies, rites for good health, and memorials for dead).
According to Chün-fang Yü, the most popular Chinese Buddhist ritual that is most widely performed today is the Great Compassion Repentance associated with
Guanyin and the ''
Great Compassion Dharani''.
Keeping sets of ethical rules, like the classic Buddhist
five precepts
The Five precepts ( sa, pañcaśīla, italic=yes; pi, pañcasīla, italic=yes) or five rules of training ( sa, pañcaśikṣapada, italic=yes; pi, pañcasikkhapada, italic=yes) is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay peo ...
, are another key part of Buddhist practice. Taking up the ethical precepts in a ceremony, along with taking refuge in the three jewels (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) is a common way of entering the Buddhist path.
Another important set of ethical precepts is the “
bodhisattva precepts
The Bodhisattva Precepts ( Skt. ''bodhisattva-śīla'', , ja, bosatsukai) are a set of ethical trainings ('' śīla'') used in Mahāyāna Buddhism to advance a practitioner along the path to becoming a bodhisattva. Traditionally, monastics obser ...
” of the
''Brahmā’s Net Sutra'', which are often practiced by both laity and monastics.
Acts of charity or social service () are also an important of part of Chinese
Buddhist ethics
Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on what Buddhists view as the enlightened perspective of the Buddha. The term for ethics or morality used in Buddhism is ''Śīla'' or ''sīla'' (Pāli). ''Śīla'' in Buddhism is one of three sections of ...
.
Another key part of Chinese Buddhism is engaging in
Buddhist meditations such as chanting the Buddhas name (
念佛, ''niànfó'') which is the core practice of
Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wide ...
and seated meditation (坐禪'',
zuò chán''), which is the focus of the
Chan
Chan may refer to:
Places
*Chan (commune), Cambodia
* Chan Lake, by Chan Lake Territorial Park in Northwest Territories, Canada
People
*Chan (surname), romanization of various Chinese surnames (including 陳, 曾, 詹, 戰, and 田)
*Chan Caldw ...
tradition. The practice of recitation of the Buddhas name is commonly done in a group setting, sometimes as part of an intensive nianfo recitation retreat, which can last for several days. These retreats might also include chanting sutras, taking of
the eight precepts, silent meditation and
Dharma lectures.
[Jones, Charles B. (2021). ''Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice'', pp. 198-210. Shambhala Publications, .]
Textual practices are also commonly practiced by monks and laypersons. These include printing, copying, propagating and reciting Buddhist scriptures, studying Buddhist texts, and attending lectures.
[Jones, Charles B. (2021). ''Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice'', pp. 188-198. Shambhala Publications, .] Buddhist temples may also have special elements associated with sacred texts, such as
lecture halls or
dharma halls ( 法堂),
libraries and scripture platforms (施法壇), a kind of sacred
podium.
Other important Buddhist rituals are those related to death, which is seen as a key moment for Buddhists who want to attain a good rebirth in the pure land of a Buddha (the most popular being
Amitabha's pure land).
The focus of these rituals is to keep the dying person free of distractions and offer spiritual support (so they can focus their minds on Amitabha Buddha through the repetition of the Buddha's name).
It is commonly believed that during these rituals one can experiences auspicious signs like visions of Amitabha and bright lights.
Pilgrimages
A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
to well-known monasteries and sites, like the
Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains (
Wǔtái Shān,
Éméi Shān,
Jǐuhuá Shān,
Pǔtuó Shān) are also undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike.
Another popular practice is the use of
mantras
A mantra (Pali: ''manta'') or mantram (मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words in Sanskrit, Pali and other languages believed by practitioners to have religious, ma ...
and
''dhāraṇī''s, such as the popular
''Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī'' and the
''Cundī Dhāraṇī''.
Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices of
Cundī enjoyed popularity among both the common people and the elite.
Deities and temples
The ,_a_colossal_statue_of_Vairocana">Spring_Temple_Buddha,_a_colossal_statue_of_Vairocana_in_Henan.html" ;"title="Vairocana.html" ;"title="Spring Temple Buddha, a colossal statue of Vairocana">Spring Temple Buddha, a colossal statue of Vairocana in Henan">Vairocana.html" ;"title="Spring Temple Buddha, a colossal statue of Vairocana">Spring Temple Buddha, a colossal statue of Vairocana in Henan, China.
file:Golden Summit (Jinding) (17264931860).jpg, Statue of
Samantabhadra at Mount Emei
file:2016 Singapur, Chinatown, Świątynia i Muzeum Relikwi Zęba Buddy (26).jpg, Shrine to
Cintāmaṇicakra
Cintāmaṇicakra ( sa, चिन्तामणिचक्र; Chinese (Traditional): 如意輪觀音; Simplified: 如意轮观音; pinyin: ''Rúyìlún Guānyīn''; Japanese: 如意輪観音, ''Nyoirin Kannon'') is a bodhisattva and a manifest ...
(如意輪觀音; Rúyìlún Guānyīn) within the Universal Wisdom Hall of
Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum
The Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum ( zh, 新加坡佛牙寺龍華院) is a Buddhist temple and museum complex located in the Chinatown district of Singapore. The temple's monastics and devotees officially practice Chinese Buddhism.
Over ...
,
Singapore.
Various Mahāyāna
Buddhist deities
Great mandala of the Tôji imperial temple in Kyoto
Buddhism includes a wide array of divine beings that are venerated in various ritual and popular contexts. Initially they included mainly Indian figures such as devas, asuras and yakshas, bu ...
are venerated in Chinese Buddhism, most of which are
Buddhas
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
(佛 fó) and
bodhisattvas
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
(菩薩 púsà). Some of the key figures include:
*
Śākyamuni
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
(Shijiamoni, “sage of the
śākyas”), the historical founder of Buddhism, commonly depicted with
Ᾱnanda and
Mahākāśyapa
Mahākāśyapa ( pi, Mahākassapa) was one of the principal disciples of Gautama Buddha. He is regarded in Buddhism as an enlightened disciple, being foremost in ascetic practice. Mahākāśyapa assumed leadership of the monastic community fol ...
, or in a triad with
Amitābha
Amitābha ( sa, अमिताभ, IPA: ), also known as Amitāyus, is the primary Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism. In Vajrayana Buddhism, he is known for his longevity, discernment, pure perception, purification of aggregates, and deep awaren ...
and
Medicine Buddha
Bhaiṣajyaguru ( sa, भैषज्यगुरु, zh, t= , ja, 薬師仏, ko, 약사불, bo, སངས་རྒྱས་སྨན་བླ), or ''Bhaishajyaguru'', formally Bhaiṣajya-guru-vaiḍūrya-prabhā-rāja ("Medicine Master ...
.
*
Avalokiteśvara
In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...
, the bodhisattva of compassion who has various forms (such as the thousand arms form), the most popular being the motherly
Guānyīn.
*
Amitābha
Amitābha ( sa, अमिताभ, IPA: ), also known as Amitāyus, is the primary Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism. In Vajrayana Buddhism, he is known for his longevity, discernment, pure perception, purification of aggregates, and deep awaren ...
Buddha (
pinyin: Ēmítuó fó, "Limitless Light") also called Amitāyus ("Limitless Life"), associated with the
pure land of
Sukhavati
Sukhavati (IAST: ''Sukhāvatī''; "Blissful") is a pure land of Amitābha in Mahayana Buddhism. It is also called the Land of Bliss or Western Pure Land, and is the most well-known of Buddhist pure lands, due to the popularity of Pure Land Budd ...
which many hope to reach after death
*
Vairocana (Dàrì Rúlái), the cosmic
primordial Buddha
In Vajrayana Buddhism, the Ādi-Buddha () is the "First Buddha" or the "Primordial Buddha". Another common term for this figure is Dharmakāya Buddha.
The term emerges in tantric Buddhist literature, most prominently in the Kalachakra.Buswell, ...
*
Medicine Buddha
Bhaiṣajyaguru ( sa, भैषज्यगुरु, zh, t= , ja, 薬師仏, ko, 약사불, bo, སངས་རྒྱས་སྨན་བླ), or ''Bhaishajyaguru'', formally Bhaiṣajya-guru-vaiḍūrya-prabhā-rāja ("Medicine Master ...
(Yàoshī fó), associated with medicinal powers
*
Maitreya
Maitreya (Sanskrit: ) or Metteyya (Pali: ), also Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha, is regarded as the future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. As the 5th and final Buddha of the current kalpa, Maitreya's teachings will be aimed at ...
bodhisattva (Mílè púsà), is seen as the Buddha of the future, sometimes depicted as a
fat laughing Buddha
*
Manjushri bodhisattva (Wénshū púsà), the bodhisattva of wisdom, associated with
Mount Wutai, often appears mounted on a lion.
*
Samantabhadra bodhisattva (Pǔxián púsà), often depicted riding an elephant, is associated with confession and repentance rites and the bodhisattva vows.
*
Kṣitigarbha bodhisattva (Dìzàng púsà), the savior monk associated with rites for the deceased
* The
Eighteen Arhats
The Eighteen Arhats (or Luohan) () are depicted in Chinese Buddhism as the original followers of Gautama Buddha (''arhat'') who have followed the Noble Eightfold Path and attained the four stages of enlightenment. They have reached the state of N ...
(Shíbā Luóhàn)
* The
Four Great Heavenly Kings (Sìdà Tiānwáng)
* The
Twenty-Four Protective Deities
The Twenty-Four Protective Deities or the Twenty-Four Devas (Chinese: 二十四諸天; pinyin: ''Èrshísì Zhūtiān''), sometimes reduced to the Twenty Protective Deities or the Twenty Devas (Chinese: 二十諸天; pinyin: ''Èrshí Zhūtiān'') ...
(
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of v ...
: 二十四諸天;
pinyin: ''Èrshísì Zhūtiān''), a common ser of Chinese Buddhist protector deities (
dharmapalas
A ''dharmapāla'' (, , ja, 達磨波羅, 護法善神, 護法神, 諸天善神, 諸天鬼神, 諸天善神諸大眷屬) is a type of wrathful god in Buddhism. The name means "''dharma'' protector" in Sanskrit, and the ''dharmapālas'' are als ...
).
Chinese Buddhist temples usually include numerous images and statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. They are often ritually carved and installed as part of a consecration ritual that may include chanting and scripture reading. Devotion towards these are a major part of Chinese Buddhism. As Chün-fang Yü writes "people in China worship buddhas and bodhisattvas in rituals, write poems and novels about them, praise them in songs and hymns, and tell stories and stage plays about them. And above all else, they worship the images of these holy beings."
According to Mario Poceski, Chinese Buddhist temples generally follow a traditional
Chinese palace
A Chinese palace is an imperial complex where the court, civil government, royal garden and defensive fortress resided. Its structures are considerable and elaborate. The Chinese character ''gong'' (宮; meaning "palace") represents two connected ...
layout. They "consist of a series of halls and courtyards that are arranged symmetrically around a central axis, which usually runs from north to south. The main hall is typically a large building that is centrally located along the main axis. In larger monasteries or temples, a number of ancillary halls also house the images of lesser Buddhist divinities, giving residents and visitors alike a wide choice of objects of worship and supplication."
Another common structure is a
pagoda which may contain Buddhist relics and statues or images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Monasticism
Buddhist Monks at Kunming Yuantong Temple
Buddhist monasticism
Buddhist monasticism is one of the earliest surviving forms of organized monasticism and one of the fundamental institutions of Buddhism. Monks and nuns, called bhikkhu (Pali, Skt. bhikshu) and bhikkhuni (Skt. bhikshuni), are responsible f ...
is an important part of Chinese Buddhism. Chinese Buddhist monastics (both male and female) follow the
Dharmaguptaka Vinaya
The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions rema ...
, which is known as the ''Four Part Vinaya'' (''Sifen lü'') in China and has 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns.
Buddhist monks and nuns perform numerous religious practices and services, including offerings to altars, liturgical services,
circumambulating the Buddha hall, preaching the scriptures, Dharma lectures, rituals meals and chanting at mealtime, as well as confession and repentance rituals.
[Huaiyu Chen, "East Asian Transformations of Monasticism" in ''The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism'', p. 299, Wiley-Blackwell (2014).]
There have been many different types of monasteries throughout Chinese Buddhist history. There are city monasteries, country monasteries and monasteries deep in the mountains. Some monasteries may be large and rich, with thousands of monastics while others are small with just a few monastics. The most prestigious monasteries have support from rich elites, and the smallest are usually in small villages.
Vegetarianism
The vegetarian restaurant of is well-known throughout China.">South Putuo Temple is well-known throughout China.
Vegetarianism
Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter.
Vegetarianism m ...
is widely promoted and practiced in Chinese Buddhism, though not all Chinese Buddhists are necessarily vegetarians.
The monastic Vinaya does not require vegetarianism, but the practice is promoted in various Mahayana sutras, like the ''
Lankavatara Sutra''.
Monastics are often required to be vegetarian and meat is often banned in Buddhist temples and monasteries.
Other dietary restrictions may include avoiding eggs, dairy, and certain types of leeks.
Devout laity are also often vegetarian. Some laypersons may practice vegetarian on certain sacred days, during religious retreats or on certain festivals.
Temples and monasteries often have vegetarian dining halls and vegetarian feasts are a common feature of popular celebrations.
Laypeople in Chinese Buddhism
In Chinese Buddhism,
lay Buddhist practitioners have traditionally played an important role, and lay practice of Buddhism has had similar tendencies to those of monastic Buddhism in China.
[Twitchett, Denis, and Fairbank, John. ''The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8, Part 2''. 1998. p. 949] Many historical biographies of lay Buddhists are available, which give a clear picture of their practices and role in Chinese Buddhism. In addition to these numerous biographies, there are accounts from Jesuit missionaries such as
Matteo Ricci
Matteo Ricci, SJ (; la, Mattheus Riccius; 6 October 1552 – 11 May 1610), was an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions. He created the , a 1602 map of the world written in Chinese characters. ...
which provide extensive and revealing accounts to the degree Buddhism penetrated elite and popular culture in China.
Traditional practices such as meditation, mantra recitation, mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha, asceticism, and vegetarianism were all integrated into the belief systems of ordinary people.
It is known from accounts in the Ming Dynasty that lay practitioners often engaged in practices from both the Pure Land and Chan traditions, as well as the study of the Buddhist sūtras. The ''Heart Sūtra'' and the ''Diamond Sūtra'' were the most popular, followed by the ''Lotus Sūtra'' and the ''
''.
Syncretism and multiple religious belonging
Chinese Buddhism may also include influences from Native
Chinese Religions
The People's Republic of China is officially an atheist state, but the government formally recognizes five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity (Catholicism and Protestantism are recognised separately), and Islam. In the early 21st ce ...
, including
Confucianism,
Taoism and
Chinese Folk Religion
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
.
This ecumenical attitude and embrace of religious pluralism has been a common feature of
Chinese culture
Chinese culture () is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia and is extremely diverse and varying, with customs and traditions varying grea ...
since ancient times.
For example, Chinese Buddhists may practice
qigong,
tai chi
Tai chi (), short for Tai chi ch'üan ( zh, s=太极拳, t=太極拳, first=t, p=Tàijíquán, labels=no), sometimes called "shadowboxing", is an internal Chinese martial art practiced for defense training, health benefits and meditation. T ...
and
gongfu, venerate native
Chinese deities
Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. The gods are energies or principles revealing, imitating and propagating the way of Heaven (''Tian'' ), whi ...
(like
Guan Yu,
Mazu
Mazu or Matsu is a Chinese sea goddess also known by several other names and titles. She is the deified form of the legendary figure Lin Mo or Lin Moniang, a Fujianese shamaness whose life span is traditionally dated from 960 to 987. ...
and
Monkey King
The Monkey King, also known as Sun Wukong ( zh, t=孫悟空, s=孙悟空, first=t) in Mandarin Chinese, is a legendary mythical figure best known as one of the main characters in the 16th-century Chinese novel ''Journey to the West'' ( zh, ...
), engage in
ancestor veneration
The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
, practice
traditional Chinese medicine and make use of
Feng shui and
Chinese talismans. Chinese religions like Taoism and Confucianism were also in turn influenced by Chinese Buddhism.
The ancient idea of the compatibility of the
Three Teachings
In Chinese philosophy, the ''three teachings'' (; vi, tam giáo, Chữ Hán: 三教) are Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, considered as a harmonious aggregate. Literary references to the "three teachings" by prominent Chinese scholars date ba ...
(
Confucianism,
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
and
Daoism
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' T ...
) is common in China and is expressed in the phrase ''the'' ''three teachings harmonious as one'' ().
Chinese Buddhism developed Chinese mythologies and philosophies which incorporated and accommodated Chinese religions. For example, Chinese Buddhist apocryphal texts tell of how
Laozi was actually a disciple of the Buddha and also how
Confucius was a bodhisattva. Chinese Buddhist thinkers like
Guifeng Zongmi
Guifeng Zongmi () (780–1 February 841) was a Tang dynasty Buddhist scholar and bhikkhu, installed as fifth patriarch of the Huayan school as well as a patriarch of the Heze school of Southern Chan Buddhism. He wrote a number of works on th ...
argued that all three teachings should be followed and practiced since they all contain important truths (though he also considered Buddhism to reveal the highest truth).
One such important element of Chinese Buddhism are religious practices focused on one's ancestors, something that is shared in common with other traditional Chinese religions. This can include paying respect to them at various sites and at festivals like the
Qingming
The Qingming festival or Ching Ming Festival, also known as Tomb-Sweeping Day in English (sometimes also called Chinese Memorial Day or Ancestors' Day), is a traditional Chinese festival observed by the Han Chinese of mainland China, Hong Ko ...
and
Zhong Yuan Festival
The Ghost Festival, also known as the Zhongyuan Festival (traditional Chinese: 中元節; simplified Chinese: ) in Taoism and Yulanpen Festival () in Buddhism, is a traditional Taoist and Buddhist festival held in certain East Asian countri ...
as well as participating in services to pray for one's deceased ancestors.
The ritual burning of
incense (shaoxiang,
jingxiang
Jìngxiāng (敬香 "offering incense with respect"), shàngxiāng (上香 "offering incense"), bàishén (拜神 "worshipping the Gods"), is a ritual of offering incense accompanied by tea and or fruits in Chinese traditional religion. In an ...
) is another common religious practice in Buddhist spaces derived from traditional Chinese religion. During the
Zhou dynasty, the Chinese believed that smoke resulting from burning of
sandalwood would act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits.
The practice remains a common offering in Chinese Buddhism, which it shared with other Chinese religions.
Another common feature of Chinese religion is
multiple religious belonging. As such, Chinese adherents may also practice Buddhism alongside other Chinese religious practices without seeing this as conflicting. According to Mario Poceski:
many or even most people who actually come to worship at Buddhist temples are not hardcore believers. A good number of them assume the kinds of fuzzy or hybrid religious identities that are typical of Chinese religiosity; among other things, that can mean that many of them also worship at Daoist temples or shrines associated with popular religion. This is one of the reasons why it is very difficult to arrive at reliable data about the number of “ Buddhists ” in China.
Traditions
Donglin Temple at
Mount Lu, considered the birthplace of East Asian Pure Land Buddhism
Major Chinese Buddhist traditions
Traditional Chinese Buddhist scholars like
Sheng-yen
Sheng Yen (), born Zhang Baokang (), (January 22, 1931 – February 3, 2009) was a Taiwanese Buddhist monk, religious scholar, and writer. He was one of the mainstream teachers of Chan Buddhism. He was a 57th generational dharma heir of L ...
enumerate thirteen Buddhist traditions or schools (Chinese: ''zōng'').
[Chan Master Sheng Yen (2007). ''Orthodox Chinese Buddhism: A Contemporary Chan Master's Answers to Common Questions,'' pp. 116-119. North Atlantic Books.] This list is also found in traditional Japanese Buddhist histories, particularly that of
Gyōnen Gyōnen (凝然; 1240–1321) was a Japanese Buddhist monk of the Kegon school who resided at Tōdai-ji Temple in the late Kamakura period. He studied the history of Buddhism in India, China, and Japan, compiling documents on this subject in pursuit ...
(1240–1321).
Over time, some of these schools survived or were revived as living traditions, while others are now defunct historical traditions or were absorbed into other schools. These "traditions" are not rigid designations and there has always been much intermixing and many temples and communities are influenced by many of these traditions (and also by local Chinese custom and
traditional Chinese religions like
Daoism
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' T ...
). Some traditions may also have numerous sub-schools or sects.
The various Chinese Buddhist traditions are not
exclusivist, and are better seen as trends, emphases,
schools of thought or "dharma-gates" (法門, fǎmén), instead of as separate
sects
A sect is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. Although the term was originally a classification for religious separated groups, it can now refer to any organization that b ...
.
[Jones, Charles B. (2019) ''Chinese Pure Land Buddhism, Understanding a Tradition of Practice,'' pp. 10-12. University of Hawai‘i Press / Honolulu.] Chün-fang Yü quotes a famous saying which describes the harmonious situation in Chinese Buddhism, "Tiantai and Huayan for doctrine, Chan and Pure Land for practice."
As Mario Poceski notes, Chinese Buddhism "lacks clear
sectarian divisions of the kind we find in other Buddhist traditions".
All Chinese monastics follow the same ordination procedures and monastic precepts, and as such there is no rigid separation between "schools" or "sects". While traditions like Chan and Tiantai are understood as distinctive teachings, they are all part of the single Chinese Buddhist tradition which is "characterized by broad - minded acceptance of a variety of styles of discourse, modes of worship, and approaches to spiritual cultivation."
Due to Chinese Buddhism's acceptance of diversity,
ecumenism
Ecumenism (), also spelled oecumenism, is the concept and principle that Christians who belong to different Christian denominations should work together to develop closer relationships among their churches and promote Christian unity. The adjec ...
and difference, most Chinese Buddhists would not identify themselves as being part of a specific "school".
That being said, there are still disagreements and doctrinal debates within the community.
The "thirteen schools" are:
[William Edward Soothill, Lewis Hodous (1977). ''A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali Index.'' p. 256. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.]
* The
Chengshi school (historical) which focused on the study of the ''
Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra'' ("The Treatise that Accomplishes Reality"; Chinese: 成實論, ''Chengshilun'').
* The Kosa School (俱舍宗) (historical), based on the study of
Abhidharma
The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...
using the ''
Abhidharmakośa'' of
Vasubandhu
Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who wrote commentary ...
.
*
The "Three Treatises" school (三論'', Sānlùn'', Chinese
Mādhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhis ...
) founded by
Kumarajiva (344–413 CE).
* The
Pure Land school (
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of v ...
: 淨土宗;
pinyin: ''Jìngtǔzōng'') focused on rebirth in
Amitabha's Pure Land.
* The Nirvana (''Nièpán'') school (historical) based on the ''
Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra
The ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'' (Sanskrit; , ; Vietnamese: ''Kinh Đại Bát Niết Bàn'') or ''Nirvana Sutra'' is Mahāyāna Buddhist sutra of the Buddha-nature genre. Its precise date of origin is uncertain, but its early form ...
'' (大般涅槃經; ''Dàbānnièpán-jīng'') translated by
Dharmarakṣa
(, J. Jiku Hōgo; K. Ch’uk Pǒphom c. 233-310) was one of the most important early translators of Mahayana sutras into Chinese. Several of his translations had profound effects on East Asian Buddhism. He is described in scriptural catalogues ...
(c. 233-310), this was later absobed into the Tiāntāi school.
* The Dilun school (based on the ''
Daśabhūmikā sutra'' translated by
Bodhiruci
Bodhiruci () was a Buddhist monk from North India (6th century CE) active in the area of Luoyang, China. His 39 translated works include the ''Ten Stages Sutra
The ''Ten Stages Sutra'' ( Sanskrit: ''Daśabhūmika Sūtra''; ; ) also known as t ...
), this was later absorbed into the
Huáyán tradition.
* The She lun school (based on
Asanga’s ''Summary of the Mahayana'' translated by
Paramartha), it was later absorbed into the
Huáyán and Consciousness-only schools.
*
The Consciousness Only school (唯識宗; ''Wéishí'',
Yogācāra), a.k.a. Faxiang ("dharma characteristics") school, founded by
Xuanzang (602-664) and based on his ''
Chengweishilun'' (''The Demonstration of Consciousness-only'')''.''
* The
Tiāntāi school (天台宗), also known as the Lotus school (法華宗), due to their focus on the ''
Lotus Sutra.''
* The
Huáyán school (華嚴宗), the school of the ''
Avataṃsaka Sūtra'' (華嚴經; ''Huáyán jīng'').
* The
Vinaya
The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions rema ...
school (四分律宗) or Nanshan school, a historical tradition which focused on the
Dharmaguptaka monastic discipline, established by the monk
Daoxuan
Daoxuan (; 596–667) was an eminent Tang dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk. He is perhaps best known as the patriarch of the Four-part Vinaya school (). Daoxuan wrote both the ''Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks'' (Xù gāosēng zhuàn 續高 ...
(596–667).
* The
Chan
Chan may refer to:
Places
*Chan (commune), Cambodia
* Chan Lake, by Chan Lake Territorial Park in Northwest Territories, Canada
People
*Chan (surname), romanization of various Chinese surnames (including 陳, 曾, 詹, 戰, and 田)
*Chan Caldw ...
(禪,
Dhyana
Dhyana may refer to:
Meditative practices in Indian religions
* Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: ''jhāna'')
* Dhyana in Hinduism
* Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation
Other
*''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener
Sir John Kenneth Ta ...
) school, i.e. the
Zen
Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and l ...
tradition attributed to the founder
Bodhidharma
Bodhidharma was a semi-legendary Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th or 6th century CE. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Chan Buddhism to China, and regarded as its first Chinese patriarch. According to a 17th century ap ...
, which focuses on sitting meditation (坐禪, ''
zuòchán'') and developed numerous sub-schools like
Caodong
Caodong school () is a Chinese Chan Buddhist sect and one of the Five Houses of Chán.
Etymology
The key figure in the Caodong school was founder Dongshan Liangjie (807-869, 洞山良价 or Jpn. Tozan Ryokai). Some attribute the name "Cáodòng ...
and
Linji.
* The Zhenyan school (真言宗, "true word", "
mantra" school), i.e.
Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
Chinese Esoteric Buddhism refers to traditions of Tantra and Esoteric Buddhism that have flourished among the Chinese people. The Tantric masters Śubhakarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra, established the Esoteric Buddhist ''Zhenyan'' (, "true ...
. Also called ''Mìjiao'' (密教; Esoteric Teaching), ''Mìzōng'' (密宗; "Esoteric Tradition") or ''Tángmì'' (唐密; "Tang Esoterica").
Many of these traditions were also later exported to other
East Asian
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
nations, like
Japan,
Korea and
Vietnam.
According to
Sheng-yen
Sheng Yen (), born Zhang Baokang (), (January 22, 1931 – February 3, 2009) was a Taiwanese Buddhist monk, religious scholar, and writer. He was one of the mainstream teachers of Chan Buddhism. He was a 57th generational dharma heir of L ...
, the Chan school is the most popular school in China today, though this is often combined with
Pure Land practice as well.
[Chan Master Sheng Yen (2007). ''Orthodox Chinese Buddhism: A Contemporary Chan Master's Answers to Common Questions,'' pp. 118-119. North Atlantic Books.] Sheng-yen also notes that the
Tiāntāi,
Huáyán,
Three Treatises,
Consciousness Only, Vinaya and Esoteric traditions are also present in modern Chinese Buddhism, though to a lesser extent.
There is also modernist movement called
Humanistic Buddhism (人間佛教; ''rénjiān fójiào'') which emphasizes
humanism,
charity
Charity may refer to:
Giving
* Charitable organization or charity, a non-profit organization whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being of persons
* Charity (practice), the practice of being benevolent, giving and sharing
* C ...
and other
humanitarian practices that help improve social conditions.
New religious movements
There are many sects and organisations proclaiming a Buddhist identity and pursuit (''fo'' or ''fu'': "awakening", "enlightenment") that are not recognised as legitimate Buddhism by the
Chinese Buddhist Association
The Buddhist Association of China (BCA; ) is the official government supervisory organ of Buddhism in the People's Republic of China. The association has been overseen by the United Front Work Department of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) since ...
and the government of the People's Republic of China. This group includes:
*
Guanyin Buddhism
wakening Teaching( ''Guānyīn Fójiào'') or Guanyin Church ( ''Guānyīn Huì'')
*
True Buddha School
The True Buddha School () is a relatively new ( Vajrayana oriented) Buddhist sect, that includes practices and deities from Taoism, and thus could arguably be defined as a new religious movement. Its headquarters are in Redmond, WA, USA, and t ...
( ''Zhēnfó Zōng'')
*Buddhism
wakening Teachingof the Lord of Heaven of Infinite Thriving of the Mountain of Longevity ( ''Shòushān Wànlóng Tiānzhǔ Fójiào'')
*Wulian Jingang Dadao ("Great Way of the Innumerable Attendants of Awakening")
*Hanmi Chinese esoteric buddhism, Living Buddha Dechan Jueren
Holidays and festivals
Ghost festival floating lanterns,
">Hong Kong
Buddha's Birthday (佛誕 Fódàn) celebration of bathing baby Buddha statues.
Chinese Buddhists celebrate numerous
religious festivals
A religious festival is a time of special importance marked by adherents to that religion. Religious festivals are commonly celebrated on recurring cycles in a calendar year or lunar calendar. The science of religious rites and festivals is know ...
and
holidays and these are the most widely attended and popular Chinese Buddhist events.
During religious festivals, Chinese people visit temples to take part in rituals, chanting, food, celebrations, parades and to make offerings of prayers, incense, fruits, flowers and donations. On such days they may observe the moral precepts very strictly as well as a full day's
vegetarian
Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter.
Vegetarianism m ...
diet. Some of the most important holidays celebrated by Chinese Buddhists include:
Buddha's Birthday
Buddha's Birthday (also known as Buddha Jayanti, also known as his day of enlightenment – Buddha Purnima, Buddha Pournami) is a Buddhist festival that is celebrated in most of East Asia and South Asia commemorating the birth of the Prince ...
(on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month),
Chinese New Year
Chinese New Year is the festival that celebrates the beginning of a new year on the traditional lunisolar and solar Chinese calendar. In Chinese and other East Asian cultures, the festival is commonly referred to as the Spring Festival () as t ...
and the
Lantern Festival (on the first and fifteenth days of the first lunar month), and the
Ghost Festival (fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month).
List of Holidays
The following holiday dates given are based on the
Chinese calendar
The traditional Chinese calendar (also known as the Agricultural Calendar ��曆; 农历; ''Nónglì''; 'farming calendar' Former Calendar ��曆; 旧历; ''Jiùlì'' Traditional Calendar ��曆; 老历; ''Lǎolì'', is a lunisolar calendar ...
system so that 8.4 means the ''Eighth day of the fourth month in Chinese calendar'' and so on.
*8.12 — Enlightenment Day of
Śākyamuni
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
Buddha
*1.1 — Birthday of
Maitreya
Maitreya (Sanskrit: ) or Metteyya (Pali: ), also Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha, is regarded as the future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. As the 5th and final Buddha of the current kalpa, Maitreya's teachings will be aimed at ...
Buddha
*9.1 — Birthday of
Śakra, Lord of the
Devas
Devas may refer to:
* Devas Club, a club in south London
* Anthony Devas (1911–1958), British portrait painter
* Charles Stanton Devas (1848–1906), political economist
* Jocelyn Devas (died 1886), founder of the Devas Club
* Devas (band), ...
*8.2 — Renunciation Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
*15.2 —
Mahāparinirvāṇa Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
*19.2 — Birthday of Bodhisattva
Avalokiteśvara
In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...
(
Guan Yin
Guanyin () is a Bodhisattva associated with compassion. She is the East Asian representation of Avalokiteśvara ( sa, अवलोकितेश्वर) and has been adopted by other Eastern religions, including Chinese folk religion. She w ...
)
*21.2 — Birthday of Bodhisattva
Samantabhadra
*4.4 — Birthday of Bodhisattva
Mañjuśrī
Mañjuśrī ( Sanskrit: मञ्जुश्री) is a ''bodhisattva'' associated with '' prajñā'' (wisdom) in Mahāyāna Buddhism. His name means "Gentle Glory" in Sanskrit. Mañjuśrī is also known by the fuller name of Mañjuśrīkumār ...
*8.4 — Birthday of Śākyamuni Buddha
*15.4 —
Vesak Day
*13.5 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Sangharama (Qie Lan)
*3.6 — Birthday of
Skanda (Wei Tuo)
*19.6 — Enlightenment Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
*13.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva
Mahāsthāmaprāpta
Mahāsthāmaprāpta is a bodhisattva mahāsattva who represents the power of wisdom. His name literally means "arrival of the great strength".
Mahāsthāmaprāpta is one of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism, along with Mañjuś ...
*15.7 — Ullambana Festival
Ghost Festival
*24.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna
*30.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva
Kṣitigarbha
*22.8 — Birthday of
Dīpaṃkara Buddha (an ancient buddha)
*19.9 — Renunciation Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
*30.9 — Birthday of
Bhaiṣajyaguru
Bhaiṣajyaguru ( sa, भैषज्यगुरु, zh, t= , ja, 薬師仏, ko, 약사불, bo, སངས་རྒྱས་སྨན་བླ), or ''Bhaishajyaguru'', formally Bhaiṣajya-guru-vaiḍūrya-prabhā-rāja ("Medicine Master ...
Buddha (Medicine Buddha)
*5.10 — Anniversary of the death of
Bodhidharma
Bodhidharma was a semi-legendary Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th or 6th century CE. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Chan Buddhism to China, and regarded as its first Chinese patriarch. According to a 17th century ap ...
*17.11 — Birthday of
Amitābha
Amitābha ( sa, अमिताभ, IPA: ), also known as Amitāyus, is the primary Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism. In Vajrayana Buddhism, he is known for his longevity, discernment, pure perception, purification of aggregates, and deep awaren ...
Buddha
See also
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
*
* Chen, Kenneth Kuan Sheng. ''Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey''. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1964.
*
* Han Yu. ''Sources of Chinese Tradition''. c. 800.
*
*
* Hill, John E. (2009) ''Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE''. John E. Hill. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. .
*
*
*
*
* Liebenthal, Walter. ''Chao Lun - The Treatises of Seng-Chao'' Hong Kong, China, Hong Kong University Press, 1968.
* Liebenthal, Walter. ''Was ist chinesischer Buddhismus'' Asiatische Studien: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Asiengesellschaft, 195
Was ist chinesischer Buddhismus*
*
* Mullin, Glenn H. ''The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnations'' (2001) Clear Light Publishers. .
* Saunders, Kenneth J. (1923). "Buddhism in China: A Historical Sketch", ''The Journal of Religion'', Vol. 3.2, pp. 157–169; Vol. 3.3, pp. 256–275.
* Welch, Holmes. ''The Practice of Chinese Buddhism''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1967.
* Welch, Holmes. ''The Buddhist Revival in China''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968.
* Welch, Holmes. ''Buddhism under Mao''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972.
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
History
*
*
*
* Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (1999). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 1: A General Survey. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 1, 91–103. Archived from th
original* Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2001). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 2: The Earliest Period; Chapter 3: Hui-yuan of Mt.Lu; and Chapter 4: The Translation of Texts-Spurious Scriptures. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 3, 241–275. Archived from th
original* Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2002). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter Five: The Early Pure Land Faith: Southern China, and Chapter Six: The Early Pure Land Faith: Northern China. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 4, 259–279. Archived from th
original* Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2000). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 7: T'an-luan. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 2, 149–165. Archived from th
original
First Buddhist revival
*
*
*
Contemporary Chinese Buddhism
*
*
*
*
*
** List first published in:
External links
China Buddhist AssociationBuddhist Studies netWisdom embodied: Chinese Buddhist and Daoist sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art– a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF)
{{Chinese Buddhist Pantheon
China
History of Buddhism in Asia