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Boluan Fanzheng () or Poluan Fancheng, was a
period Period may refer to: Common uses * Era, a length or span of time * Full stop (or period), a punctuation mark Arts, entertainment, and media * Period (music), a concept in musical composition * Periodic sentence (or rhetorical period), a concept ...
in the
history History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
of
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
during which
Deng Xiaoping Deng Xiaoping (22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary leader, military commander and statesman who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989. After CCP ...
, then paramount leader of China, led a far-reaching program attempting to correct the mistakes of the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
launched by
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; also romanised traditionally as Mao Tse-tung. (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC) ...
. The program gradually dismantled the
Maoist Maoism, officially called Mao Zedong Thought by the Chinese Communist Party, is a variety of Marxism–Leninism that Mao Zedong developed to realise a socialist revolution in the agricultural, pre-industrial society of the Republic of Ch ...
policies associated with the Cultural Revolution, rehabilitated millions of victims who were persecuted during the Revolution, initiated various sociopolitical reforms, and brought the country back to order in a systematic way. The Boluan Fanzheng period is regarded as an important transition period in China's history, which served as the bedrock of the historic
Reform and Opening-up The Chinese economic reform or reform and opening-up (), known in the West as the opening of China, is the program of economic reforms termed "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and "socialist market economy" in the People's Republic of Ch ...
program starting on December 18, 1978. After the Cultural Revolution ended in 1976, Deng Xiaoping first proposed the idea of "Boluan Fanzheng" in September 1977. With the help of his allies such as
Hu Yaobang Hu Yaobang (; 20 November 1915 – 15 April 1989) was a high-ranking official of the People's Republic of China. He held the top office of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from 1981 to 1987, first as Chairman from 1981 to 1982, then as Gene ...
who later became the
General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party The general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party () is the head of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Since 1989, the CCP general secretary has been the paramount leader ...
(CCP), Deng was able to launch the program of Boluan Fanzheng and emerged as the ''de facto'' supreme leader of China in December 1978 during the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of CCP. The Boluan Fanzheng period lasted until early 1980s, after which the primary focus of CCP and the Chinese government changed from " class struggles" to " economic construction" and " modernization". However, the Boluan Fanzheng period also saw many controversies, such as the disagreed views on Mao Zedong, the inclusion of the "
Four Cardinal Principles The Four Cardinal Principles () were stated by Deng Xiaoping in March 1979, during the early phase of Reform and Opening-up, and are the four issues for which debate was not allowed within the People's Republic of China. The Four Cardinal Princip ...
" in China's Constitution in order to maintain the
one-party state A one-party state, single-party state, one-party system, or single-party system is a type of sovereign state in which only one political party has the right to form the government, usually based on the existing constitution. All other parties ...
in China, and the legal controversies that many of the leaders and perpetrators in Cultural Revolution massacres received little or no punishment at all. The Communist Party has not fully declassified the documents related to the Cultural Revolution and has been restricting academic studies and public discussions of the Revolution within the Chinese society. Moreover, after
Xi Jinping Xi Jinping ( ; ; ; born 15 June 1953) is a Chinese politician who has served as the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC), and thus as the paramount leader of China, ...
succeeded as the General Secretary of CCP and came to power in 2012, some of the reforms made during the Boluan Fanzheng period were gradually reversed, triggering concerns of a new Cultural Revolution.


Terminology

Literally, "Boluan Fanzheng ()" is a '' chéngyǔ'' (Chinese idiom) that first appeared in ''
Spring and Autumn Annals The ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' () is an ancient Chinese chronicle that has been one of the core Chinese classics since ancient times. The ''Annals'' is the official chronicle of the State of Lu, and covers a 241-year period from 722 to 48 ...
'' of ancient China. The idiom means "correcting chaos/wrongs and returning to normal". On September 19, 1977,
Deng Xiaoping Deng Xiaoping (22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary leader, military commander and statesman who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989. After CCP ...
first proposed the idea of "Boluan Fanzheng" during a meeting with senior officials of the
Ministry of Education of China The Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China is a cabinet-level department under the State Council responsible for basic education, vocational education, higher education, and other educational affairs across the country. The Mi ...
, asking the officials to correct the mistakes of Cultural Revolution in the field of education.


Ideology


Debate over the criteria for testing truth

After
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; also romanised traditionally as Mao Tse-tung. (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC) ...
died in September 1976,
Hua Guofeng Hua Guofeng (; born Su Zhu; 16 February 1921 – 20 August 2008), alternatively spelled as Hua Kuo-feng, was a Chinese politician who served as Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party and Premier of the People's Republic of China. The desig ...
succeeded Mao as the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party and the
Chairman of the Central Military Commission Chairman of the Central Military Commission may refer to: *Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China) *Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea See also *Secretary of the Central Military Commission of the ...
. Hua largely continued Maoist policies and proposed the "
Two Whatevers The "Two Whatevers" () refers to the statement that "We will resolutely uphold whatever policy decisions Chairman Mao made, and unswervingly follow whatever instructions Chairman Mao gave" (). This statement was contained in a joint editorial, en ...
" ("Whatever Chairman Mao said, we will say and whatever Chairman Mao did, we will do"). In July 1977, with the support of senior officials such as
Ye Jianying Ye Jianying (; 28 April 1897 – 22 October 1986) was a Chinese Communist revolutionary leader and politician, one of the founding Ten Marshals of the People's Republic of China. He was the top military leader in the 1976 coup that overthre ...
and
Chen Yun Chen Yun (, pronounced ; 13 June 1905 – 10 April 1995) was one of the most influential leaders of the People's Republic of China during the 1980s and 1990s and one of the major architects and important policy makers for the Reform and op ...
,
Deng Xiaoping Deng Xiaoping (22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary leader, military commander and statesman who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989. After CCP ...
was rehabilitated after being
purge In history, religion and political science, a purge is a position removal or execution of people who are considered undesirable by those in power from a government, another organization, their team leaders, or society as a whole. A group undertak ...
d (twice) by Mao during the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
. In May 1978, Deng together with
Hu Yaobang Hu Yaobang (; 20 November 1915 – 15 April 1989) was a high-ranking official of the People's Republic of China. He held the top office of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from 1981 to 1987, first as Chairman from 1981 to 1982, then as Gene ...
and others launched a large-scale debate across China, discussing the criteria for testing truth and criticizing the "Two Whatevers". Deng along with his allies supported the opinion that "practice is the sole criterion for testing truth", which first appeared in an article published by '' Guangming Daily'' and gained widespread support within the Chinese society. On December 13, 1978, Deng delivered a speech at the closing ceremony of the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of CCP, during which he replaced Hua Guofeng to become the paramount leader of China. In the speech titled ''Emancipate the Mind, Seek Truth from Facts, and Unite as One in Looking to the Future'' (解放思想,实事求是,团结一致向前看), Deng urged Chinese people to seek truth from facts and pointed out that if the Party, the country, and the people continued to follow the
Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong ''Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung'' () is a book of statements from speeches and writings by Mao Zedong (formerly romanized as Mao Tse-tung), the former Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, published from 1964 to about 1976 and widel ...
with stubborn mindset and blind superstition, then they would never move forward, and they would perish.


Invalidating the Cultural Revolution

On September 9, 1976, Mao Zedong died, and on October 6, Hua Guofeng together with
Ye Jianying Ye Jianying (; 28 April 1897 – 22 October 1986) was a Chinese Communist revolutionary leader and politician, one of the founding Ten Marshals of the People's Republic of China. He was the top military leader in the 1976 coup that overthre ...
and
Wang Dongxing Wang Dongxing (; 9 January 1916 – 21 August 2015) was a Chinese military commander and politician, famous for being the chief of Mao Zedong's personal bodyguard force, the 9th Bureau of the Ministry of Public Security (which included the '' ...
arrested the Gang of Four, putting an end to the Cultural Revolution. From November 20, 1980, to January 25, 1981, a special court under the
Supreme People's Court The Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China (SPC; ) is the highest court of the People's Republic of China. It hears appeals of cases from the high people's courts and is the trial court for cases about matters of nation ...
carried out a trial of the Gang of Four and six other people, eventually announcing death penalties with a two-year reprieve for
Jiang Qing Jiang Qing (19 March 191414 May 1991), also known as Madame Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary, actress, and major political figure during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). She was the fourth wife of Mao Zedong, the Chairman of ...
and
Zhang Chunqiao Zhang Chunqiao (; 1 February 1917 – 21 April 2005) was a prominent Chinese political theorist, writer, and politician. He came to the national spotlight during the late stages of the Cultural Revolution, and was a member of the ultra-Maoist g ...
, and imprisonment of various terms up to life imprisonment for other members. At the same time, in the late 1970s, Deng Xiaoping and his allies began to dismantle the Maoist line of "continuous class struggles", diverting the focus of the CCP and the Chinese government to " economic construction" and " modernization". In 1980–1981, Hua Guofeng eventually resigned from his positions as the Chairman of the CCP, the Chairman of the Central Military Commission and the Premier of the People's Republic of China. In June 1981, at the 6th Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of CCP, the Communist Party unanimously passed a resolution drafted by Deng and others which comprehensively invalidated the Cultural Revolution, calling it "a domestic havoc launched mistakenly by the leader (Mao Zedong) and taken advantage of by the
counter-revolutionary A counter-revolutionary or an anti-revolutionary is anyone who opposes or resists a revolution, particularly one who acts after a revolution in order to try to overturn it or reverse its course, in full or in part. The adjective "counter-revolut ...
gangs (
Lin Biao ) , serviceyears = 1925–1971 , branch = People's Liberation Army , rank = Marshal of the People's Republic of China Lieutenant general of the National Revolutionary Army, Republic of China , commands ...
and the Gang of Four)" and that it "was responsible for the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the Party, the country, and the people since the founding of the People's Republic".


Politics and law


Rehabilitation of victims

During the Boluan Fanzheng period, Hu Yaobang, then General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, was assigned by Deng Xiaoping to take charge of the rehabilitation of the victims who were persecuted in the so-called "unjust, false, erroneous cases (冤假错案)" since the
Anti-rightist Campaign The Anti-Rightist Campaign () in the People's Republic of China, which lasted from 1957 to roughly 1959, was a political campaign to purge alleged " Rightists" within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the country as a whole. The campaign was ...
in 1957. Within a few years after 1978, victims of over 3 million such cases were rehabilitated. Some of the notable victims included: * Liu Shaoqi, 2nd
Chairman of the People's Republic of China The president of the People's Republic of China, commonly called the president of China, is the head of state and the second-highest political office of the People's Republic of China. The presidency is constitutionally a largely ceremonial off ...
, who was persecuted to death during the Cultural Revolution. * Peng Dehuai, one of the ten Marshalls of China and the 1st
Minister of National Defense A defence minister or minister of defence is a cabinet official position in charge of a ministry of defense, which regulates the armed forces in sovereign states. The role of a defence minister varies considerably from country to country; in som ...
, who was persecuted to death during the Cultural Revolution *
He Long He Long (; March 22, 1896 – June 9, 1969) was a Chinese Communist revolutionary and one of the ten marshals of the People's Liberation Army. He was from a poor rural family in Hunan, and his family was not able to provide him with any formal ...
, one of the ten Marshalls of China and Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China, who was persecuted to death during the Cultural Revolution. *
Xi Zhongxun Xi Zhongxun (15 October 1913 – 24 May 2002) was a Chinese communist revolutionary and a subsequent political official in the People's Republic of China. He is considered to be among the first and second generation of Chinese leadership. ...
, senior member of CCP and father of
Xi Jinping Xi Jinping ( ; ; ; born 15 June 1953) is a Chinese politician who has served as the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC), and thus as the paramount leader of China, ...
. *
Bo Yibo Bo Yibo (; 17 February 1908 – 15 January 2007) was a Chinese politician. He was one of the most senior political figures in China during the 1980s and 1990s. After joining the Chinese Communist Party when he was 17, he worked as a Communist ...
, senior member of CCP and father of
Bo Xilai Bo Xilai (; born 3 July 1949) is a Chinese former politician who was convicted on bribery and embezzlement charges. He came to prominence through his tenures as Mayor of Dalian and then the governor of Liaoning. From 2004 to November 2007, ...
. *
Tao Zhu Tao Zhu (; 16 January 1908 – 30 November 1969) was a member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party . Biography Born in Qiyang, Hunan, Tao Zhu was Secretary of the Guangdong Provincial Committee and Commander of the ...
, senior member of CCP.


The Constitution of China

The first constitution of China, known as the " 1954 Constitution", came into effect in 1954. However, in 1958, Mao Zedong publicly advocated the "
rule of man Rule of man (where "man" is used in a genderless manner) is a type of ''personal rule'' in an unaccountable rebounded society where rules change from ruler to ruler. It is a society in which one person, regime, or a group of persons, rules arbitr ...
" over the " rule of law", saying:
We can't rule the majority of people by relying on law. The majority of people an be ruled onlyby relying on the cultivation of
ood The Ood are an alien species with telepathic abilities from the long-running science fiction series '' Doctor Who''. In the series' narrative, they live in the distant future (circa 42nd century). The Ood are portrayed as a slave race, natura ...
habits. The army's reliance on rule by law didn't work; what's actually worked has been the 1,400-man conference. Who could remember so many clauses of a civil code or criminal law? I participated in the formulation of the Constitution, even I can't remember t
During the Cultural Revolution, China's Constitution was revised in 1975 and the resultant second constitution, known as the " 1975 Constitution", absorbed
Maoism Maoism, officially called Mao Zedong Thought by the Chinese Communist Party, is a variety of Marxism–Leninism that Mao Zedong developed to realise a socialist revolution in the agricultural, pre-industrial society of the Republic of Ch ...
and vocabulary such as the "absolute leadership of CCP (in China)" into its main content; the Constitution also contained some descriptions of the CCP organization while removing the positions such as the
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university * President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ...
and the
Vice President of the People's Republic of China The vice president of the People's Republic of China (), also known as state vice chairman (), is a senior position in the government of the People's Republic of China. It was formerly translated as the vice chairman of the People's Republic of ...
. After the Cultural Revolution, under the guidelines of Hua Guofeng's "Two Whatevers", a third constitution (known as the " 1978 Constitution") was published in 1978. Although some of the expressions associated with the Cultural Revolution were deleted from the 1978 Constitution, most of the contents from the 1975 Constitution remained in the new constitution, such as the "leadership of CCP" in China. During the Boluan Fanzheng period, Deng Xiaoping made an important speech titled ''On the Reform of the System of Party and State Leadership'' (党和国家领导制度改革) on August 18, 1980, proposing to the
National People's Congress The National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China (NPC; ), or simply the National People's Congress, is constitutionally the supreme state authority and the national legislature of the People's Republic of China. With 2,9 ...
that China needed political reforms and a systematic revision of its Constitution. Deng pointed out that the new constitution must be able to protect the
civil rights Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and political life o ...
of Chinese nationals and must demonstrate the principle of
separation of powers Separation of powers refers to the division of a state's government into branches, each with separate, independent powers and responsibilities, so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with those of the other branches. The typic ...
; he also described the idea of "
collective leadership A collective is a group of entities that share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest, or work together to achieve a common objective. Collectives can differ from cooperatives in that they are not necessarily focused upon an ...
", advocating "
one man, one vote "One man, one vote", or "one person, one vote", expresses the principle that individuals should have equal representation in voting. This slogan is used by advocates of political equality to refer to such electoral reforms as universal suffrage, ...
" among senior leaders to avoid the dictatorship of the General Secretary of CCP. In December 1982, the fourth Constitution of China (known as the " 1982 Constitution"), was passed by the 5th National People's Congress, embodying Chinese-style
constitutionalism Constitutionalism is "a compound of ideas, attitudes, and patterns of behavior elaborating the principle that the authority of government derives from and is limited by a body of fundamental law". Political organizations are constitutional ...
, and much of its content remains effective as of today. Within the 1982 Constitution, * Cultural Revolution vocabulary such as " continuous revolution under the
dictatorship of the proletariat In Marxist philosophy, the dictatorship of the proletariat is a condition in which the proletariat holds state power. The dictatorship of the proletariat is the intermediate stage between a capitalist economy and a communist economy, whereby the ...
" was deleted; *the descriptions of the organization of Chinese Communist Party was excluded; * the statement of "the country is led by the Chinese Communist Party" was deleted, but then reinstated by
Xi Jinping Xi Jinping ( ; ; ; born 15 June 1953) is a Chinese politician who has served as the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC), and thus as the paramount leader of China, ...
in 2018; * the statement of "all state organs, the armed forces, all political parties and public organizations and all enterprises and undertakings must abide by the Constitution and the law" was added; * the positions of President of China and Vice President of China were re-established, with a two-consecutive-term limit and five years for each term, though the term limits were removed by Xi Jinping in 2018.


Academics and education


Scientists and intellectuals

During the Cultural Revolution, academics and
intellectual An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking, research, and reflection about the reality of society, and who proposes solutions for the normative problems of society. Coming from the world of culture, either as a creator or a ...
s were regarded as the " Stinking Old Ninth" and were widely persecuted. Notable academics, scientists and educators who died due to the Cultural Revolution included
Xiong Qinglai Xiong Qinglai, or Hiong King-Lai (, October 20, 1893 – February 3, 1969), courtesy name Dizhi (), was a Chinese mathematician from Yunnan. He was the first person to introduce modern mathematics into China, and served as an influential preside ...
, Jian Bozan,
Lao She Shu Qingchun (3 February 189924 August 1966), known by his pen name Lao She, was a Chinese novelist and dramatist. He was one of the most significant figures of 20th-century Chinese literature, and is best known for his novel '' Rickshaw Boy'' ...
,
Tian Han Tian Han ( zh, 田汉; 12 March 1898 – 10 December 1968), formerly romanized as T'ien Han, was a Chinese drama activist, playwright, a leader of revolutionary music and films, as well as a translator and poet. He emerged at the time of the ...
,
Fu Lei Fu Lei (Fou Lei; ; courtesy name Nu'an 怒安, pseudonym Nu'an 怒庵; 1908–1966) was a Chinese translator and critic. His translation theory was dubbed the most influential in French-Chinese translation. He was known for his renowned renditio ...
, Wu Han, Rao Yutai, Wu Dingliang, Yao Tongbin and
Zhao Jiuzhang Zhao Jiuzhang (; 15 October 1907 – 26 October 1968), also known as Jeou Jang Jaw, was a Chinese meteorologist and physicist. He was a pioneer of Chinese space technology and is considered as a founding father of China's satellite program. Lif ...
. As of 1968, among the 171 senior members at the headquarters of
Chinese Academy of Sciences The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); ), known by Academia Sinica in English until the 1980s, is the national academy of the People's Republic of China for natural sciences. It has historical origins in the Academia Sinica during the Republi ...
in Beijing, 131 were persecuted, and among all the members of the academy nationwide, 229 were persecuted to death. As of September 1971, more than 4,000 staff members of China's nuclear center in
Qinghai Qinghai (; alternately romanized as Tsinghai, Ch'inghai), also known as Kokonor, is a landlocked province in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. It is the fourth largest province of China by area and has the third smallest po ...
were persecuted: among them, 40 committed suicides, five were
executed Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is the state-sanctioned practice of deliberately killing a person as a punishment for an actual or supposed crime, usually following an authorized, rule-governed process to conclude that t ...
, and 310 were permanently disabled. In Boluan Fanzheng period, Deng Xiaoping himself was in charge of the rehabilitation of scientists and intellectuals who were persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. In March 1978, Deng emphasized at the National Science Conference that intellectuals were part of the
working class The working class (or labouring class) comprises those engaged in manual-labour occupations or industrial work, who are remunerated via waged or salaried contracts. Working-class occupations (see also " Designation of workers by collar colo ...
and that the core of modernization was the modernization of science and technology. Later, he also emphasized that knowledge and talented people must be respected, whereas the wrong thought such as disrespecting intellectuals must be opposed. One of Deng's notable statements was that "science and technology are primary productive forces". Since the Boluan Fanzheng period, various new genres of literature have emerged, including the " scar literature", the "contemplative literature (反思文学) " and the "literature of reforms (改革文学)".


Education system

China's education system came to a virtual halt during the Cultural Revolution. In the early months of the Cultural Revolution, schools and universities were closed. Primary and middle schools later gradually reopened, but all colleges and universities were closed until 1970, and most universities did not reopen until 1972. The university entrance exams were cancelled after 1966, to be replaced later by a system whereby students were recommended by factories, villages and military units. Values taught in traditional education were abandoned. In 1968, the Communist Party instituted the
Down to the Countryside Movement The Up to the Mountains and Down to the Countryside Movement, often known simply as the Down to the Countryside Movement, was a policy instituted in the People's Republic of China between mid 1950s and 1978. As a result of what he perceived to ...
, in which "Educated Youths" (''zhishi qingnian'' or simply ''zhiqing'') in urban areas were sent to live and work in agrarian areas to be re-educated by the peasantry and to better understand the role of manual agrarian labor in Chinese society. In 1977, Deng Xiaoping restored the university entrance exam (
Gaokao The National College Entrance Examination (NCEE), commonly known as the gaokao (), is a standardized college entrance exam held annually in mainland China. It is required for entrance into almost all higher education institutions at the und ...
) after its ten-year halt, re-establishing the higher education system in China and changing the life of tens of millions. Deng viewed science and education as the fundamentals of China's Four Modernizations. A compulsory education system was proposed during the Boluan Fanzheng period and, with the support of Deng and others, the compulsory education was written into the "1982 Constitution" while China's nine-year compulsory education was eventually established in 1986 under law (''Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education''). In 1985, upon the recommendation of
Zhao Ziyang Zhao Ziyang ( zh, 赵紫阳; pronounced , 17 October 1919 – 17 January 2005) was a Chinese politician. He was the third premier of the People's Republic of China from 1980 to 1987, vice chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from 19 ...
, then Premier of China, the National People's Congress designated "September 10" as the annual National Teacher's Day. In addition, renowned Chinese American mathematician
Shiing-Shen Chern Shiing-Shen Chern (; , ; October 28, 1911 – December 3, 2004) was a Chinese-American mathematician and poet. He made fundamental contributions to differential geometry and topology. He has been called the "father of modern differential geome ...
once proposed to Deng to raise the basic salary of professors in
mainland China "Mainland China" is a geopolitical term defined as the territory governed by the People's Republic of China (including islands like Hainan or Chongming), excluding dependent territories of the PRC, and other territories within Greater China. ...
, increasing their monthly payments by 100 Yuan, and the proposal was soon approved by Deng.


Controversies


Views on Mao Zedong

It has been argued that the Boluan Fanzheng program launched by Deng Xiaoping had limitations and controversies, such as writing the "
Four Cardinal Principles The Four Cardinal Principles () were stated by Deng Xiaoping in March 1979, during the early phase of Reform and Opening-up, and are the four issues for which debate was not allowed within the People's Republic of China. The Four Cardinal Princip ...
" into the 1982 Constitution which forbade Chinese citizens from challenging China's socialist path, Maoism,
Marxism–Leninism Marxism–Leninism is a communist ideology which was the main communist movement throughout the 20th century. Developed by the Bolsheviks, it was the state ideology of the Soviet Union, its satellite states in the Eastern Bloc, and various c ...
as well as the leadership of the Communist Party. Erecting the
Mausoleum of Mao Zedong The Chairman Mao Memorial Hall (), also known as the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, is the final resting place of Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party from 1943 and the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party from 194 ...
on
Tiananmen Square Tiananmen Square or Tian'anmen Square (; 天安门广场; Pinyin: ''Tiān'ānmén Guǎngchǎng''; Wade–Giles: ''Tʻien1-an1-mên2 Kuang3-chʻang3'') is a city square in the city center of Beijing, China, named after the eponymous Tiananmen ...
and retaining the image of Mao on
Tiananmen The Tiananmen (also Tian'anmen (天安门), Tienanmen, T’ien-an Men; ), or the Gate of Heaven-Sent Pacification, is a monumental gate in the city center of Beijing, China, the front gate of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City of Beij ...
were also disputed. Furthermore, some scholars have pointed out that Deng himself had demonstrated personal limitations in his appraisal of Mao and
totalitarianism Totalitarianism is a form of government and a political system that prohibits all opposition parties, outlaws individual and group opposition to the state and its claims, and exercises an extremely high if not complete degree of control and regu ...
. These could be seen, for example, when Deng insisted that among all that Mao had done to the Chinese people, "70% were good and 30% were bad", whereas attributing many of the disasters in Cultural Revolution to Lin Biao and the Gang of Four. After his death, Mao has been viewed as a controversial figure worldwide. In the late 1970s, political dissidents in China such as Wei Jingsheng led the "
Democracy Wall From November 1978 to December 1979, thousands of people put up " big character posters" on a long brick wall of Xidan Street, Xicheng District of Beijing, to protest about the political and social issues of China. Under acquiescence of the Chine ...
" movement in Beijing, criticizing Mao, Maoism and the
one-party state A one-party state, single-party state, one-party system, or single-party system is a type of sovereign state in which only one political party has the right to form the government, usually based on the existing constitution. All other parties ...
in China while demanding democracy and freedom. However, Wei's initiatives were eventually suppressed by Deng.


Limited liberation and one-party state

During the Boluan Fanzheng period as well as the following
Reform and Opening-up The Chinese economic reform or reform and opening-up (), known in the West as the opening of China, is the program of economic reforms termed "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and "socialist market economy" in the People's Republic of Ch ...
period, Deng Xiaoping on one hand stressed the importance of "emancipating the mind", while on the other hand repeatedly warned against the so-called " Bourgeois liberalization". In addition, dozens of people like
Zhang Bojun Zhang Bojun (; November 17, 1895 – May 17, 1969) was a Chinese politician and intellectual, and was removed from his ministerial position in the late 1950s after being declared "China's number one rightist." Biography Zhang graduated from the ...
and
Luo Longji Luo Longji (; July 30, 1898 – December 7, 1965) was a Chinese politician and famous intellectual. Luo has been called the "China's number two rightist". He and Hu Shih collaborated to research and promote human rights in China, which made them o ...
who were persecuted during the
Anti-Rightist Campaign The Anti-Rightist Campaign () in the People's Republic of China, which lasted from 1957 to roughly 1959, was a political campaign to purge alleged " Rightists" within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the country as a whole. The campaign was ...
did not receive rehabilitation, and Deng played an important role in carrying out the campaign in the 1950s. In 1983, the Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign was launched, followed by the " Anti-Bourgeois Liberalization Campaign" which was launched in late 1986. The two campaigns were led by left-wing politicians and received some support from Deng, but both of the campaigns were called off eventually due to the interventions from Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang, who were regarded as allies of Deng and were leading reformists inside the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After the Cultural Revolution, the Central Committee of CCP failed to systematically "clear" the elements associated with the Revolution inside Chinese society, while banning comprehensive reflections and reviews on this period of history at the societal level. Some researchers and observers have argued that the main reason why CCP takes such actions is that a comprehensive review on the Cultural Revolution would fundamentally threaten the legitimacy of CCP as the ruling party in China. Others have pointed out that even though Deng and other senior CCP officials had confessed that the Party had made numerous mistakes in the past, yet they were still guarding the one-party system for CCP in China.


Legal controversies

Massacre A massacre is the killing of a large number of people or animals, especially those who are not involved in any fighting or have no way of defending themselves. A massacre is generally considered to be morally unacceptable, especially when per ...
s took place across mainland China during the Cultural Revolution. However, during the Boluan Fanzheng period, many of the leaders and perpetrators of these massacres either received minor punishment (such as getting expelled from CCP) or received no punishment at all, sparking public outrage. Relatives of some victims in the massacres visited
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
in person, petitioning for justice. * In
Guangxi Massacre The Guangxi Massacre (), or Guangxi Cultural Revolution Massacre (), was a series of events involving lynching and direct massacre in Guangxi during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). The official record shows an estimated death toll from 10 ...
, 100,000-150,000 people were killed according to official investigations, and massive cannibalism occurred. However, people who took part in the massacre or cannibalism received no punishment at all or relatively minor punishments—up to 14 years in prison. * In
Inner Mongolia Incident The Inner Mongolia incident, or the Inner Mongolia People's Revolutionary Party purge incident, () was a massive political purge which occurred during the Cultural Revolution in Inner Mongolia. The purge was supported by the Central Committee ...
, 20,000-100,000 people were killed, but Teng Haiqing, the leader who was in charge of this massive purge, did not receive any legal trial or punishment at all because he was considered by the CCP to have made achievements in the past wars. * In
Daoxian Massacre The Daoxian massacre (), or Dao County massacre, was a massacre which took place during the Cultural Revolution in Dao County, Hunan as well as ten other nearby counties and cities. From August 13 to October 17, 1967, a total of 7,696 people were k ...
of Hunan Province, 9,093 people were killed. However, only a small number of perpetrators were ever punished, and none of them was sentenced to death. Several leaders of the massacre were either expelled from the CCP or received various terms of imprisonment; in
Dao County Dao County () is a county in Hunan Province, China, it is under the administration of Yongzhou prefecture-level City. Located on the southern margin of the province, it is adjacent to the northeastern border of Guangxi. The county borders to the ...
, the epicenter of the massacre, only 11 people were ever prosecuted, receiving up to 10 years in prison.


Blocking Cultural Revolution museums

In the 1980s, notable scholars such as
Ba Jin Ba Jin (Chinese: 巴金; pinyin: ''Bā Jīn''; 1904–2005) was a Chinese writer. In addition to his impact on Chinese literature, he also wrote three original works in Esperanto, and as a political activist he wrote '' The Family''. Name He ...
called on the Chinese society to erect "Cultural Revolution museums" so that the future generations could learn from this period of history and prevented it from happening again. The proposal received support from many Chinese citizens, but the Communist Party offered no response. On the contrary, Ba Jin suffered from personal attacks during the " Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign" and the " Anti-Bourgeois Liberalization Campaign" launched by left-wing conservatives in the 1980s. In 1996, the local government of Shantou, Guangdong decided to erect the first Cultural Revolution museum in mainland China, the
Shantou Cultural Revolution Museum The Shantou Cultural Revolution Museum () was the only memorial museum dedicated to the Cultural Revolution in Mainland China, located in the Tashan Scenic Area (塔山风景区), Chenghai District, Shantou City. It was established by Peng Q ...
, which was opened to the public in 2005. However, the museum was forced to close in 2016 under
Xi Jinping Xi Jinping ( ; ; ; born 15 June 1953) is a Chinese politician who has served as the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC), and thus as the paramount leader of China, ...
's administration.


See also

*
Chinese economic reform The Chinese economic reform or reform and opening-up (), known in the West as the opening of China, is the program of economic reforms termed " Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and " socialist market economy" in the People's Republic of ...
(
Reform and Opening-up The Chinese economic reform or reform and opening-up (), known in the West as the opening of China, is the program of economic reforms termed "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and "socialist market economy" in the People's Republic of Ch ...
) * Seek truth from facts * Socialism with Chinese characteristics * Deng Xiaoping Theory *
Beijing Spring The Beijing Spring () refers to a brief period of political liberalization during the "Boluan Fanzheng" period in the People's Republic of China (PRC). It began as the Democracy Wall movement in Beijing, which occurred in 1978 and 1979, right af ...
*
Democracy Wall From November 1978 to December 1979, thousands of people put up " big character posters" on a long brick wall of Xidan Street, Xicheng District of Beijing, to protest about the political and social issues of China. Under acquiescence of the Chine ...
*
1983 "Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign The 1983 "Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign (), or "Stern Blow" Anti-crime Campaign of 1983, was a massive anti-crime campaign initiated by Deng Xiaoping beginning in September 1983, then paramount leader of China. The campaign lasted for three ye ...
* 1986 Chinese student demonstrations *Song: Story of Spring *TV series: '' Deng Xiaoping at History's Crossroads'' * De-Stalinization


References


Further reading

* Ezra F. Vogel.
Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China.
' . 2013. * Carol Lee Hamrin, Suisheng Zhao and A. Doak Barnett.

'. . 1995. *Gao Yong.
To be a Secretary of Hu Yaobang
'. Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Ltd. 2014. {{Cultural Revolution Reform in China Cold War history of China Cultural Revolution 1970s in China 1980s in China Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party Deng Xiaoping Political repression Persecution of intellectuals