Bernardus Silvestris, also known as Bernard Silvestris and Bernard Silvester, was a

medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...

Platonist Platonism is the philosophy of Plato and philosophical systems closely derived from it, though contemporary platonists do not necessarily accept all of the doctrines of Plato. Platonism had a profound effect on Western thought. Platonism at l ...

philosopher and

poet A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator ( thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems ( oral or wri ...

of the 12th century.

Biography

Little is known about Bernardus's life. In the nineteenth century, it was assumed that Bernardus was the same person as

Bernard of Chartres Bernard of Chartres ( la, Bernardus Carnotensis; died after 1124) was a twelfth-century French Neo-Platonist philosopher, scholar, and administrator. Life The date and place of his birth are unknown. He was believed to have been the elder bro ...

, but the scholarly consensus is now that the two were different people. There is little evidence connecting Bernardus to Chartres, yet his work is consistent with the scholarship associated with Chartres in the twelfth century and is in that sense "Chartrian". Bernardus dedicated his '' Cosmographia'' to

Thierry of Chartres Thierry of Chartres (''Theodoricus Chartrensis'') or Theodoric the Breton (''Theodericus Brito'') (died before 1155, probably 1150) was a twelfth-century philosopher working at Chartres and Paris, France. The cathedral school at Chartres promoted ...

, who became chancellor of Chartres in 1141; he most likely wrote the letter in order to win the favour of a powerful figure, known for his interest in science. André Vernet, who edited Bernardus' ''Cosmographia'', believed that he lived from 1085 to 1178. The most secure date in his life is 1147–48, when the ''Cosmographia'' was supposedly read to

Pope Eugene III Pope Eugene III ( la, Eugenius III; c. 1080 – 8 July 1153), born Bernardo Pignatelli, or possibly Paganelli, called Bernardo da Pisa, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 15 February 1145 to his death in 1153. He ...

, though it could have been finished before then, perhaps between 1143 and 1148.Stock, Brian (1972). ''Myth and Science in the Twelfth Century: A Study of Bernard Silvester''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. There is some evidence that Bernardus was connected to Spanish schools of philosophy, but it seems likely that he was born and taught in

Tours Tours ( , ) is one of the largest cities in the region of Centre-Val de Loire, France. It is the prefecture of the department of Indre-et-Loire. The commune of Tours had 136,463 inhabitants as of 2018 while the population of the whole metro ...

, because of the intimate descriptions of the city and the surrounding area found in the ''Cosmographia''. Later medieval authors also associated him with that city.

Works

Bernardus' greatest work is the aforementioned '' Cosmographia'', a ''

prosimetrum A ''prosimetrum'' (plural ''prosimetra'') is a poetic composition which exploits a combination of prose (''prosa'') and verse (''metrum'');Braund, Susanna. Prosimetrum. In Cancil, Hubert, and Helmuth Schneider, eds. ''Brill's New Pauly''. Brill O ...

'' on the creation of the world, told from a 12th-century Platonist perspective. This work influenced

Chaucer Geoffrey Chaucer (; – 25 October 1400) was an English poet, author, and civil servant best known for '' The Canterbury Tales''. He has been called the "father of English literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English poetry". He w ...

and others with its pioneering use of allegory to discuss metaphysical and scientific questions. Its Christian neo-Platonism was most clearly prefigured in the ''

Periphyseon ''De Divisione Naturae'' ("The Division of Nature") is the title given by Thomas Gale to his edition (1681) of the work originally titled by 9th-century theologian Johannes Scotus Eriugena ''Periphyseon''.''John Scotus Erigena'', ''The Age of Be ...

'' of the 9th-century Irish theologian

John Scotus Eriugena John Scotus Eriugena, also known as Johannes Scotus Erigena, John the Scot, or John the Irish-born ( – c. 877) was an Irish Neoplatonist philosopher, theologian and poet of the Early Middle Ages. Bertrand Russell dubbed him "the most ...

. Bernardus also wrote the poem ''Mathematicus'' and probably the poem ''Experimentarius'' as well as some minor poems. Among the works attributed to Bernardus later in the Middle Ages were a commentary on

Virgil Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: th ...

's ''

Aeneid The ''Aeneid'' ( ; la, Aenē̆is or ) is a Latin epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who fled the fall of Troy and travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of th ...

'' (Bernardus' authorship of which has been questioned by modern scholars) and a commentary on

Martianus Capella Martianus Minneus Felix Capella (fl. c. 410–420) was a jurist, polymath and Latin prose writer of late antiquity, one of the earliest developers of the system of the seven liberal arts that structured early medieval education. He was a nati ...

's ''De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii''. The commentary on the ''Aeneid'' is the longest medieval commentary on that work, although it is incomplete, ending about two-thirds of the way through book six.

So-Called Silvestris Commentary

Julian Ward Jones, Jr., in his article "The So-Called Silvestris Commentary on the Aeneid and Two Other Interpretations", attempts to clear up the issue of the authorship of the ''Aeneid'' commentary by distinguishing two distinct positions: the first by E. R. Smits, and the second by Christopher Baswell. Smits's account is rejected by Jones, who says that Baswell's account is mostly correct but requires some modification.Jones, Julian Ward, Jr. (1989). "The So-Called Silvestris Commentary on the ''Aeneid'' and Two Other Interpretations". ''Speculum'' 64:4. pp. 835-848. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2852869 (accessed October 23, 2010). E. R. Smits, like André Vernet (1938), hypothesizes that Carnotensis (the pen-name of the commentary) is

– the individual who Silvestris is most confused for. Vernet says that Silvestris, for whom this confusion was normally detrimental, probably gained from this particular confusion, as he is most often credited for the commentary on Vergil's ''Aeneid''. Smits and Vernet attribute Bernard of Chartres's authorship of the ''Aeneid'' commentary to a number of similarities and differences between this work and other texts. What needs to be asked here though is why is Vernet still turned to for answers on Silvestris, when he wrote on the subject in 1938? It seems as though we do not have a choice, because even more modern writers, such as Jones, continue to cite him because there is no one else to look to. Vernet still has authority on the subject matter. On the other hand, Christopher Baswell attempts to interpret the ''Aeneid'' commentary through comparison to a commentary in Cambridge manuscript Peterhouse 158, seeing this as an important link between manuscripts of the commentary and the Silvestris commentary. By placing the passages in two columns it is clear to the reader as it is to Baswell that the interpretations are congruent, although the notes in the Peterhouse MS appear to be shortened and simpler versions of notes in the Silvestris commentary. Baswell wants here to conclude that the Peterhouse MS represents the earlier work of Silvestris. Jones sets this conclusion aside to continue to exhibit differences that occur – which in his opinion are more important than the striking similarities. By pointing to differences in organization among other things, Jones casts doubt on Baswell's earlier hypothesis. What becomes clear is that there is agreement between Baswell and Jones in that they both see Silvestris as the ''Aeneid'' commentator, but Jones cannot agree with the connection to the Peterhouse MS.

Impact and contributions

The ''Cosmographia'' influenced

and others with its pioneering use of allegory to discuss metaphysical and scientific questions. Theodore Silverstein praises Silvestris' works for their imaginative prose, as well as for positioning himself well in literature based on the time and place—particularly in the writing of the ''Cosmographia'' during the 12th-century controversies of

evolution Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...

. In the

Catholic Encyclopedia The ''Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church'' (also referred to as the ''Old Catholic Encyclopedia'' and the ''Original Catholic Encyclopedia'') i ...

, William Turner wrote that there was a "pantheistic drift" to his philosophy. There is evidence of influence in the works of medieval and renaissance authors, including

Hildegard of Bingen Hildegard of Bingen (german: Hildegard von Bingen; la, Hildegardis Bingensis; 17 September 1179), also known as Saint Hildegard and the Sibyl of the Rhine, was a German Benedictine abbess and polymath active as a writer, composer, philosopher ...

, St. Bonaventure,

Vincent of Beauvais Vincent of Beauvais ( la, Vincentius Bellovacensis or ''Vincentius Burgundus''; c. 1264) was a Dominican friar at the Cistercian monastery of Royaumont Abbey, France. He is known mostly for his ''Speculum Maius'' (''Great mirror''), a major work ...

Dante Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian people, Italian Italian poetry, poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', origin ...

, Nicolas of Cusa, and

Boccaccio Giovanni Boccaccio (, , ; 16 June 1313 – 21 December 1375) was an Italian writer, poet, correspondent of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanist. Born in the town of Certaldo, he became so well known as a writer that he was some ...

. In the modern era, Bernardus Silvestris has been referred to in the nonfiction and science fiction work of C. S. Lewis.Lewis, C. S. ''The Allegory of Love''; Lewis, C. S. (1938). ''Out of the Silent Planet''. London: HarperCollins.

Editions and translations

*''Mathematicus'', ed. and trans. Deirdre M. Stone, ''Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du moyen âge'' 63 (1996): 209–83. *''Experimentarius'', ed. Charles Burnett, in "What Is the ''Experimentarius'' of Bernardus Silvestris?: A Preliminary Survey of the Material," ''Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du moyen âge'' 44 (1977): 62–108. Reprinted in Burnett, ''Magic and Divination in the Middle Ages'' (Aldershot: Variorum, 1996). *''The Commentary on the First Six Books of the'' Aeneid ''of Virgil Commonly Attributed to Bernardus Silvestris'', ed. Julian Ward Jones and Elizabeth Frances Jones (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1977). *''The Commentary on the First Six Books of Virgil's'' Aeneid, trans. Earl G. Schreiber and Thomas E. Maresca (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979).

References and Notes

Bibliography

*Desmond, Marilynn, "Bernardus Silvestris and the Corpus of the ''Aeneid''," in ''The Classics in the Middle Ages'', ed. Aldo S. Bernardo and Saul Levin (Binghamton: Centre for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1990). *Dronke, Peter, ''Fabula: Explorations into the Uses of Myth in Medieval Platonism'' (Leiden: Brill, 1974). *———, "Bernard Silvestris: Nature and Personification," in ''Intellectuals and Poets in Medieval Europe'' (Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1992). *Jeauneau, Édouard, "Bernard Silvestre," in ''

Dictionary of Scientific Biography The ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'' is a scholarly reference work that was published from 1970 through 1980 by publisher Charles Scribner's Sons, with main editor the science historian Charles Gillispie, from Princeton University. It consi ...

'', vol. 2 (New York: Scribner's, 1970): 21–22. *Jones, Julian Ward, "The So-Called Silvestris Commentary on the ''Aeneid'' and Two Other Interpretations," ''Speculum'' 64 (1989): 838-48. *Kauntze, Mark, ''Authority and Imitation: A Study of the 'Cosmographia' of Bernardus Silvestris'', Mittellateinische Studien und Texte, 47 (Leiden: Brill, 2014). . *Stock, Brian, ''Myth and Science in the Twelfth Century: A Study of Bernard Silvester'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972). *Wetherbee, Winthrop, ''Platonism and Poetry in the Twelfth Century: The Literary Influence of the School of Chartres'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972).