The Battle of White Wolf Mountain was a battle fought in 207 in the late

Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...

of China. The battle took place in northern China, beyond the frontiers of the ruling Eastern Han dynasty. It was fought between the warlord

Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the dynasty's final years. As one o ...

and the nomadic

Wuhuan The Wuhuan (, < Eastern Han Chinese: *''ʔɑ-ɣuɑn'', <

tribes, who were allied with Cao Cao's rivals

Yuan Shang Yuan Shang (died December 207), courtesy name Xianfu, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was the third son and successor of the warlord Yuan Shao. In the 14th-centu ...

and

Yuan Xi Yuan Xi (died December 20711th month of the 12th year of the ''Jian'an'' era, per Emperor Xian's biography in ''Book of the Later Han''. The month corresponds to 7 Dec 207 to 5 Jan 208 in the Julian calendar.), courtesy name Xianyi or Xianyong ...

. The victory attained by Cao Cao dashed the hopes of a Wuhuan dominion, and the Wuhuan eventually became weakened, lost importance, and were gradually absorbed into the Han population or the

Xianbei The Xianbei (; ) were a Proto-Mongolic ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. They originated from the Donghu people who splintered into th ...

tribes.

Background

The northern warlord

Yuan Shao Yuan Shao (, ; died 28 June 202), courtesy name Benchu (), was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil wars that occurred t ...

had maintained good relations with the Wuhuan beyond Han borders during his campaign against rival warlord

Gongsun Zan Gongsun Zan () (before 161 - April or May 199), courtesy name Bogui, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. Life Little is known of Gongsun Zan's early life. He and Liu Bei stu ...

, their common enemy, in the 190s. Yuan Shao gave the chieftains of his Wuhuan allies seals and insignia as

chanyu Chanyu () or Shanyu (), short for Chengli Gutu Chanyu (), was the title used by the supreme rulers of Inner Asian nomads for eight centuries until superseded by the title "'' Khagan''" in 402 CE. The title was most famously used by the rulin ...

s after the final destruction of Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Yijing, and reinforced the alliance by marrying the daughters of his subordinates to the Wuhuan leaders, pretending as though the daughters were his own. The Wuhuan leader

Tadun Tadun (died 207) was a leader of the Wuhuan tribes during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was an ally of the warlord Yuan Shao and Yuan Shao's son and successor Yuan Shang. Life Tadun was a younger relative of the Wuhuan chieftain Q ...

was especially powerful and was thus very well-treated by Yuan Shao. The Wuhuan continued to support the Yuan clan after Yuan Shao's defeat at the

Battle of Guandu The Battle of Guandu was fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Yuan Shao in 200 AD in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Cao Cao's decisive victory against Yuan Shao's numerically superior forces marked the turning point in their war. The victo ...

against Cao Cao, shortly after which Yuan Shao died. Subsequently, Yuan Shao's oldest son

Yuan Tan Yuan Tan (died 205), courtesy name Xiansi, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who was the eldest son of Yuan Shao, a warlord who occupied much of northern China during the late Eastern Han dynasty. After Yuan Shao's death, Y ...

and youngest son

fought among themselves in a succession feud, which Cao Cao exploited for himself. Soon Yuan Tan was killed in a battle against Cao Cao and Yuan Shang had to flee to his second brother, Yuan Xi, in

You Province You Prefecture or You Province, also known by its Chinese name Youzhou, was a prefecture ('' zhou'') in northern China during its imperial era. "You Province" was cited in some ancient sources as one of the nine or twelve original provinces ...

. The Yuan brothers in You Province then suffered a mutiny, and fled further north to seek protection from the Wuhuan. The Wuhuan at this time had been united under the military leadership of Tadun, and his apparent strength prompted rumours that he was seeking to emulate

Modu Chanyu Modu, Maodun, Modun (, from Old Chinese (220 B.C.E.): *''mouᴴ-tuən'' or *''mək-tuən'', c. 234 – c. 174 BCE) was the son of Touman and the founder of the empire of the Xiongnu. He came to power by ordering his men to kill his father in 209 ...

of the

Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...

and Tanshihuai () of the

in creating a hegemony over the northern nomadic tribes. With the arrival of the Yuan brothers, accompanied by a considerable number of their followers, Tadun had gained command of a combined Wuhuan and Chinese force that was said to have numbered up to 300,000. In the name of helping Yuan Shang regain his territories, the Wuhuan made several raids across the Chinese border. These raids were said to have kidnapped over 100,000 Chinese families. Faced with such danger in the north, Cao Cao contemplated the elimination of the Wuhuan threat.

Plans and preparations

To prepare for a campaign far to the north of the Chinese heartland, Cao Cao put Dong Zhao in charge of digging two canals, the Pinglu Trench (平虜渠; "Pacify-the-Caitiffs Trench") and the Quanzhou Trench (), from the autumn of 206 to spring of 207 so he could use these waterways to ship supplies to the north. While these works were under way, some generals tried to dissuade Cao Cao from campaigning so far to the north in case of an attack from the south: However, Cao Cao's strategist Guo Jia urged a swift attack with the following analysis: *The northern barbarians are deluded by a false sense of security since they are so far away from the Chinese heartlands, thus if Cao Cao takes advantage of their miscalculation and attack them quickly, they can be defeated and destroyed. *If Cao Cao turns his military prowess to the south before settling the north, the Yuan brothers and the Wuhuan will cause trouble, and the newly settled northern provinces will be lost. *Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province, will not be persuaded by Liu Bei to launch an attack on Xu City, since Liu Biao is a person who does nothing but sit and talk. Liu Biao also does not trust Liu Bei as Liu Bei is a more competent man than he is — if he gives Liu Bei an important post he must be concerned that Liu Bei will become too powerful, but if he gives him a lesser position Liu Bei will be reluctant to serve him. Cao Cao agreed with Guo Jia's analysis, and in the summer of 207, Cao personally marched his army to Yijing (易京; present-day Yi County, Hebei) and made the city his base camp for the campaign. From there he advanced to Wuzhong (無終; present-day Ji County, Tianjin), where the local leader

Tian Chou ''Tiān'' () is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion. During the Shang dynasty (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to their supreme god as '' Shàngdì'' (, "Lor ...

() submitted to him.

The oblique approach

The base of Wuhuan power was located at Liucheng (柳城; southwest of present-day

Chaoyang, Liaoning Chaoyang () is a prefecture-level city in western Liaoning province, People's Republic of China. With a vast land area of almost , it is by area the largest prefecture-level city in Liaoning, and borders on Hebei province and the Inner Mongolia ...

), and the obvious line of attack from Wuzhong was through the plains along the coastline of the

Bohai Sea The Bohai Sea () is a marginal sea approximately in area on the east coast of Mainland China. It is the northwestern and innermost extension of the Yellow Sea, to which it connects to the east via the Bohai Strait. It has a mean depth of ...

. However, in August or early September, the monsoon season set in and the heavy rains flooded the low-lying areas and drenched the roads in mud, making the terrain impassable. The Wuhuan also anticipated such an attack route and held the river crossings, and for some time Cao Cao's army could not advance. Cao Cao turned to Tian Chou, who was familiar with the area and had run-ins with the Wuhuan before, for advice regarding this situation. Tian Chou notified Cao Cao of a disused road that led to the abandoned former Han frontier lands. From there the army can march through undefended territory and attack the Wuhuan where they least expect it, and by doing so "Tadun's head can be taken without a single battle", Tian Chou said. Cao Cao, most pleased, accepted the plan and led his army back (presumably to Wuzhong). He had his men erect signs on the roads by the water, which wrote: "It is the middle of summer, and the road is impassable. We are waiting for autumn or winter to resume the advance." Enemy scouts saw the sign and apparently believed that Cao Cao really retreated. As Tian Chou had predicted, the Wuhuan were convinced that any force that could not advance through the plains had to turn back, which was a miscalculation most grave. Guo Jia had advised that "swiftness is the key in war" (兵貴神速; later became a

Chinese idiom ''Chengyu'' () are a type of traditional Chinese idiomatic expression, most of which consist of four characters. ''Chengyu'' were widely used in Classical Chinese and are still common in vernacular Chinese writing and in the spoken language ...

), and thus suggested that Cao Cao should leave the baggage behind and make a forced march with light troops to take the enemy by surprise, since carrying too much baggage bogs the army down and alerts the enemy of the army's presence. Cao Cao took the suggestion to heart. With Tian Chou leading the way, Cao Cao led a light force to embark on what has been called one of his most remarkable military adventures of his career. They climbed the hills of Xuwu (徐無; west of present-day Zunhua,

Hebei Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and ...

), exited the Chinese frontiers through Lulong Pass (盧龍塞; presently submerged under the Panjiakou Dam) into the upper valley of the Luan River, and marched through difficult terrain for over 500 '' li''. Turning east at Pinggang (平岡; near present-day

Pingquan County Pingquan () is a county-level city of northeastern Hebei province, China, bordering Liaoning province to the east. It has a population of 470,000 residing in an area of . It is a centre of trade and business, and gold and silver are mined nearby. ...

, Hebei), the expedition force crossed the grazing fields of the Xianbei and re-entered the mountain ranges that served as the Eastern Han dynasty's borders. By now Cao Cao's men had flanked Tadun's defensive positions and was advancing on a line to the sea which would divide the enemy territory into two.

The battle

By September or early October, as Cao Cao's army reached the valley of Daling River, Tadun and his allies realized what was happening and hastily withdrew from their prepared positions and gathered to face Cao Cao to the north. With tens of thousands of men gathered, Tadun, along with Yuan Shang, Yuan Xi, and the two Wuhuan

s Louban () and Wuyan (), met Cao Cao's army at White Wolf Mountain (白狼山; near present-day

Lingyuan, Liaoning Lingyuan () is a city in the west of Liaoning province in Northeast China, bordering Hebei province and Inner Mongolia. It is under the administration of Chaoyang City, which lies to the east-northeast. Administrative Divisions There are eight ...

). The encounter was sudden for both parties. Faced with superior numbers and the baggage left in the rear, Cao Cao's lightly armoured men became afraid. The Wuhuan, on the other hand, were evidently unprepared for battle as they were not in proper formations, nor did they attempt to take the initiative by harassing Cao Cao's march. Undaunted, Cao Cao climbed a slope to observe the enemy's formations. He saw that the Wuhuan were unordered, and immediately unleashed his soldiers to exploit this weakness. With Cao Cao's general

Zhang Liao Zhang Liao () (169–222), courtesy name Wenyuan, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He served briefly in the state of Cao Wei, founded by Cao Cao's successor Cao Pi, in the ...

leading the offensive, the light force swiftly defeated the Wuhuan cavalry, and

Cao Chun Cao Chun (died 210), courtesy name Zihe, was a military officer serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was a younger second cousin of Cao Cao, and is best known for leading the "Tiger and Leopard Cava ...

's brigade captured Tadun. Within a short time, Tadun and many of his men were killed and the battle was over. Over 200,000 Chinese settlers and Wuhuan tribesmen surrendered to Cao Cao.

Aftermath

The battle was decisive — in one single engagement, Cao Cao had broken the back of Wuhuan resistance. With a few thousand horses, the Yuan brothers and the surviving Wuhuan leaders, Supuyan (), Louban, Wuyan and others, fled east to Liaodong (遼東; eastern Liaoning), where the warlord Gongsun Kang enjoyed some degree of independence from the Han imperial court due to Liaodong's distance from the capital and the chaotic state in China. In October or early November, Cao Cao continued his march into Liucheng, and there he halted, making no intention to attack Liaodong despite the urging of his subordinates. "I shall arrange that Gongsun Kang cuts off the heads of Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi and sends them to me. No need to bother with soldiers," he said. He later explained that applying pressure to Liaodong may bind Yuan Shang and Gongsun Kang against him, but if he left them to their devices, they would quarrel. A few days after Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi arrived in Liaodong, Gongsun Kang arranged to see them. Yuan Shang plotted to kill Gongsun Kang and take his territory for the Yuans, but Gongsun Kang struck first, killing the brothers and sending their heads to Cao Cao. The Wuhuan leaders who followed the Yuans were not spared either and were all decapitated. After this, Cao Cao returned to the

North China Plain The North China Plain or Huang-Huai-Hai Plain () is a large-scale downfaulted rift basin formed in the late Paleogene and Neogene and then modified by the deposits of the Yellow River. It is the largest alluvial plain of China. The plain is border ...

after a particularly difficult withdrawal from Liucheng, where the coldness of early winter, shortage of food, and drought all took their toll on Cao Cao's men. Guo Jia, whose advice immensely helped Cao Cao's cause, and the former warlord Zhang Xiu were among those who perished during this campaign. Upon his return, Cao Cao rewarded and complimented the counsellors who had advised against the Wuhuan campaign earlier, acknowledging that the venture had been dangerous and risky and he had been blessed by fortune. Indeed, Liu Bei had tried to persuade Liu Biao to attack while Cao Cao was away in the north. However, as Guo Jia predicted, Liu Biao did not seize the opportunity and later regretted this decision. In December 207, at the bank of the Yi River (), the Wuhuan leaders Nanlou () and Pufulu (), who had not joined Tadun's ill-fated resistance, came to Cao Cao and offered their homage and congratulations, formally submitting to him. The Wuhuan who had surrendered were brought into

China proper China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the "core" regions of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. This term is used to express a distinction between the "core" regions pop ...

en masse, and their horsemen became known as the finest cavalry force in the empire. In Cao Cao's remaining years, the Wuhuan would not pose any serious danger to his domain, though there were minor revolts in 216 and 218. With the death of Tadun and the Yuan brothers, Cao Cao's domination of northern China was now unchallenged. The success in the north brought Cao Cao tremendous prestige as he took the title of Imperial Chancellor in 208, and the secured northern frontiers allowed Cao Cao to focus his military attention against Liu Biao to the south in the same year. On the other hand, the Battle of White Wolf Mountain scattered the Wuhuan tribes, with remnants taking refuge in

Manchuria Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...

Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled mos ...

, and the western borders of Liaodong. As the years went by, these remnant Wuhuan tribes were eventually absorbed by the stronger powers nearby — some were assimilated by the Chinese, but most were incorporated into the Xianbei. The decline that began at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain destroyed the Wuhuans' identity and their ability to remain politically independent, and for the most part, the Wuhuan ceased to be viewed as an independent people of the northern frontiers of China.

Notes

References

;Citations Bibliography * * * * {{coord missing, Liaoning 207 200s conflicts White Wolf Mountain 207 Military history of Liaoning Wuhuan