Barbara Low (biochemist)
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Barbara Wharton Low (March 23, 1920 – January 10, 2019) was a biochemist,
biophysicist Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that applies approaches and methods traditionally used in physics to study biological phenomena. Biophysics covers all scales of biological organization, from molecular to organismic and populations. ...
, and a researcher involved in discovering the structure of penicillin and the characteristics of other
antibiotics An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention o ...
. Her early work at
Oxford University Oxford () is a city in England. It is the county town and only city of Oxfordshire. In 2020, its population was estimated at 151,584. It is north-west of London, south-east of Birmingham and north-east of Bristol. The city is home to th ...
with Dorothy Hodgkin used
X-ray crystallography X-ray crystallography is the experimental science determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles ...
to confirm the molecular structure of penicillin, which at the time was the largest molecule whose structure has been determined using that method. Later graduate work saw her study with Linus Pauling and Edwin Cohn before becoming a professor in her own right. Low's laboratory would accomplish the discovery of the
pi helix A pi helix (or π-helix) is a type of secondary structure found in proteins. Discovered by crystallographer Barbara Low in 1952 and once thought to be rare, short π-helices are found in 15% of known protein structures and are believed to be an ...
, investigate the structure of insulin, and conduct research into neurotoxins.


Childhood and education

Low was born on March 23, 1920 in
Lancaster, England Lancaster (, ) is a city and the county town of Lancashire, England, standing on the River Lune. Its population of 52,234 compares with one of 138,375 in the wider City of Lancaster local government district. The House of Lancaster was a bran ...
to her parents, Matthew Low and Mary Jane Wharton. She undertook her tertiary education at Somerville College, Oxford, graduating with a
bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six ...
in 1943. That same year she began work under the biochemist Dorothy Hodgkin as a research assistant for the university's department of chemical crystallography. Due to Hodgkin's focus on
protein crystallography X-ray crystallography is the experimental science determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles ...
, for which she was later awarded a
Nobel prize The Nobel Prizes ( ; sv, Nobelpriset ; no, Nobelprisen ) are five separate prizes that, according to Alfred Nobel's will of 1895, are awarded to "those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind." Alfr ...
, Low and her academic colleagues were engaged in researching the use of X-rays to determine the structure of crystallized proteins. Low obtained
Master's A master's degree (from Latin ) is an academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice.
and doctoral degrees in chemistry from Oxford University in 1946 and 1948 respectively, before moving on to a
research associate Research associates are researchers (scholars and professionals) that usually have an advanced degree beyond a Master's degree. In some universities/research institutes, such as Harvard/Harvard Medical School/Harvard School of Public Health, th ...
position at the
California Institute of Technology The California Institute of Technology (branded as Caltech or CIT)The university itself only spells its short form as "Caltech"; the institution considers other spellings such a"Cal Tech" and "CalTech" incorrect. The institute is also occasional ...
(Caltech). To do so, she obtained a
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
passport through
emigration Emigration is the act of leaving a resident country or place of residence with the intent to settle elsewhere (to permanently leave a country). Conversely, immigration describes the movement of people into one country from another (to permanent ...
and later full citizenship in 1956. While at Caltech, she worked under Nobel Laureate Linus Pauling for a year before moving to another yearly research associate position at
Harvard University Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of high ...
working with Edwin Cohn. The following year, in 1950, Harvard offered Low her first academic appointment as
assistant professor Assistant Professor is an academic rank just below the rank of an associate professor used in universities or colleges, mainly in the United States and Canada. Overview This position is generally taken after earning a doctoral degree A docto ...
of
biophysical chemistry Biophysical chemistry is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems. The most common feature of the research in this subject is to seek explanation of the various phenomena in ...
at the newly created laboratory building for "fundamental studies of the makeup of body fluids and cells". She relocated to
Columbia University Columbia University (also known as Columbia, and officially as Columbia University in the City of New York) is a private research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Church in Manhatt ...
in 1956 as an associate professor, and was promoted to a full
professorship Professor (commonly abbreviated as Prof.) is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, ''professor'' derives from Latin as a "person who professes". Professors ...
in 1966. Low continued at Columbia until her retirement in 1990 as
professor emerita ''Emeritus'' (; female: ''emerita'') is an adjective used to designate a retired chair, professor, pastor, bishop, pope, director, president, prime minister, rabbi, emperor, or other person who has been "permitted to retain as an honorary title ...
of biochemistry and molecular biophysics. She still did routine academic rounds as a "Special Lecturer" at the university, however, up until 2013.


Career

During Low's early work with the Hodgkin laboratory in the final years of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
, she discovered the sulfur elemental components of penicillin that allowed for its mass production and later transformation into other antibiotic compounds. Up to that point, a pure sample of penicillin had not been successfully synthesized due to a lack of understanding of its physical structure of the compound, specifically the variation of its
penam Penams are the primary skeleton structures that define the penicillin subclass of the broader β-lactam family of antibiotics and related compounds. They are bicyclic ring systems containing a β-lactam moiety fused with a five-member thiazolid ...
core. Due to the size of the molecule, only careful examination of the X-ray results allowed for any information on the overall construction, but the two finally completed the investigation in 1945. During this time, she was one of the first scientists in the United States to conduct studies of X-ray diffraction of crystalline proteins in a laboratory setting. At that time, it was the largest molecule ever to have had its structure determined by crystallography. Because the knowledge Low and Hodgkin obtained was of such importance and the research had been funded by the UK government, however, their work on penicillin remained classified for decades afterwards. At Harvard, Low turned to topics she would continue in her later positions at Columbia University: the structure and composition of insulin and structural investigations into
albumin Albumin is a family of globular proteins, the most common of which are the serum albumins. All the proteins of the albumin family are water-soluble, moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins ...
crystals. Once her Columbia lab was established, Low also included research into
neurotoxins Neurotoxins are toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue (causing neurotoxicity). Neurotoxins are an extensive class of exogenous chemical neurological insultsSpencer 2000 that can adversely affect function in both developing and mature nerv ...
on her schedule, including
curare Curare ( /kʊˈrɑːri/ or /kjʊˈrɑːri/; ''koo-rah-ree'' or ''kyoo-rah-ree'') is a common name for various alkaloid arrow poisons originating from plant extracts. Used as a paralyzing agent by indigenous peoples in Central and South ...
and its derivatives. The general protein studies from her lab resulted in 1952 with the discovery of the
pi helix A pi helix (or π-helix) is a type of secondary structure found in proteins. Discovered by crystallographer Barbara Low in 1952 and once thought to be rare, short π-helices are found in 15% of known protein structures and are believed to be an ...
, a fundamental structural component of a significant number of proteins. Her X-ray crystallography images were used in 1953 to disprove the existence of "beta ice" as first claimed by Russian scientist N. Saljakov to be a different non-hexagonal form of
ice Ice is water frozen into a solid state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 0 degrees Celsius or Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaqu ...
. As a member of the Columbia University committee on affirmative action, Low strongly believed in diversifying the faculty and workstaff at the university. She wished to help improve the standing of
women in science The presence of women in science spans the earliest times of the history of science wherein they have made significant contributions. Historians with an interest in gender and science have researched the scientific endeavors and accomplishments ...
and did so in one way by hiring and nurturing a large number of female graduate students in her lab.


Honors and awards

Low received a
fellowship A fellow is a concept whose exact meaning depends on context. In learned or professional societies, it refers to a privileged member who is specially elected in recognition of their work and achievements. Within the context of higher education ...
for women scholars in 1946 from the American Association of University Women. This Rose Sidgwick Memorial Fellowship is specifically offered to women researchers in England to allow them to study in the United States and was awarded to Low for her work on the structure of penicillin. She was elected to the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (abbreviation: AAA&S) is one of the oldest learned societies in the United States. It was founded in 1780 during the American Revolution by John Adams, John Hancock, James Bowdoin, Andrew Oliver, a ...
in 1953.


Personal life

Low identified herself as a Quaker and valued humanitarian work. At Somerville, she studied the Polish language and considered pursuing post-war aid in Poland. During her three-year assistantship, her leftist ideologies created conflict with Margaret Roberts, another study of Hodgkins who would later become
Baroness Thatcher Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher (; 13 October 19258 April 2013) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the first female British prime ...
and, eventually, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Her political views and affiliation with pro-world peace organizations rumored to have association with communist parties also created conflict with her standing as a U.S. citizen. Low was denied a U.S. visa until the 1950s, during which time she became a U.S. citizen. In 1950, Low also married Harvard historian . She was widowed in 1995 and spent her later years at her home in
Riverdale, Bronx Riverdale is a residential neighborhood in the northwestern portion of the New York City borough of the Bronx. Riverdale, which had a population of 47,850 as of the 2000 United States Census, contains the city's northernmost point, at the Coll ...
. She died on January 10, 2019 at the age of 98.


Selected works

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References


Further reading

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Low, Barbara Wharton British biochemists British women biochemists British biophysicists American women biologists 20th-century American biologists 1920 births 2019 deaths 20th-century British biologists British emigrants to the United States Alumni of Somerville College, Oxford Harvard University faculty Columbia University faculty Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences American women academics 21st-century American women 20th-century American women scientists