Malta was ruled by the Byzantine Empire, from the time of the Byzantine conquest of Sicily in 535-6 to 869-870, when the islands were occupied by Arabs. Evidence for the three centuries of Byzantine rule in Malta is very limited, and at times ambiguous. Historians theorise that Byzantine Malta was exposed to the same phenomena affecting the

Central Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the ea ...

, namely a considerable influx of Greek settlers and Hellenic culture, administrative changes brought about by the reorganisation of Sicily along the lines of a

Byzantine theme The themes or ( el, θέματα, , singular: , ) were the main military/administrative divisions of the middle Byzantine Empire. They were established in the mid-7th century in the aftermath of the Slavic invasion of the Balkans and Muslim con ...

, and significant naval activity in the Mediterranean following the rise of

Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...

. Byzantine sources are scant on the Maltese islands, although a handful of records group them together as the nominal Gaudomelete, ( grc, Γαυδομελέτη), a term that first appears in the

pseudoepigraphical Pseudepigrapha (also anglicized as "pseudepigraph" or "pseudepigraphs") are falsely attributed works, texts whose claimed author is not the true author, or a work whose real author attributed it to a figure of the past.Bauckham, Richard; "Pseu ...

Acts of Peter and Paul. The islands were a place of relegation and

exile Exile is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country, and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose. Usually persons and peoples suf ...

. With Muslim expansion in North Africa, Malta shifted from a military base and trade post linking Sicily and the other Byzantine possessions in the Italian peninsula to the Exarchate of Africa, to an outlying satellite and guardpost of

Byzantine Sicily The history of Sicily has been influenced by numerous ethnic groups. It has seen Sicily controlled by external powers – Phoenician and Carthaginian, Greek, Roman, Vandal and Ostrogoth, Byzantine Greek, Aghlabid, Fatimid, Kalbid, Norman, Ar ...

, ''( Greek: θέμα Σικελίας, Thema Sikelias).'' Historians have concluded that Malta played a limited strategic role in the Byzantine Empire. The subsequent Arab conquest led to a complete break between the Byzantine era and later periods. While there are studies about alleged Byzantine or Christian survival, the sparseness of evidence implies a weak case for a lasting Byzantine legacy in Malta.

Background

The earliest mentions of Malta in this era are scant, and usually inferred in passages relating to Sicily. In a passage by Victor Vitensis, Bishop of Vita, historians infer that towards the end of the fifth century, the Maltese islands were conquered by Vandals from their Kingdom in North Africa, and then handed to Odoacre, the Ostrogothic king of Italy. Historians theorise that Malta remained in Vandal hands from around 455 to 476, and then granted to Odoacre as tribute, before passing on to Theodoric after this defeat of Odoacre in 493. There is no evidence of a

Bishop of Malta The Archdiocese of Malta (Malti: ''Arċidjoċesi ta' Malta'') is a metropolitan archdiocese of the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church in Malta. History Tradition claims that St. Paul the Apostle established the diocese of Malta in the year 60 A ...

before 553, with no record appearing of a Maltese bishop attending any council in Vandal Africa. However, as no episcopal lists survive from Africa, historians are unable to assess whether Malta had a bishop or whether the islands formed part of the African church at this early stage. Malta suffers from a lack of attention in Byzantine sources, translating into a long-lasting perception amongst historians that the archipelago lay at the margins of the strategic, political and military interests of the Byzantine Empire. This view was only overturned in recent years, following advances in Maltese archaeology. Analysis of ceramics found that the Byzantines still sent navies into the Western Mediterranean well into the 9th century - confirming that Malta was a strategic stepping stone in the defence system around North Africa, Sicily and the Balearics. Although occasionally raided by Arabs naval forces, Malta - together with Sardinia and the Balearics - provided the Byzantines with a good strategic base in the central and western Mediterranean, enabling them to maintain an economic and military presence. The trade volume into the Maltese islands, was not only military in nature. Local political elites were also supplied with Eastern Mediterranean goods. Sigillographic evidence concludes Maltese elites included ''archontes,'' bishops and members of the ecclesiastical communities. The islands' commercial vitality, reflecting their strategic position in the Mediterranean, and a degree of autonomy which probably allowed the elites to bridge the gap between Muslim Africa and ''"Byzantine Italies.''" Maltese elites took on an active stance and engaged in political and trade exchanges with Muslim communities in North Africa - proven by finds of Umayyad coins on the islands and the finding of a seal belonging to Niketas - ''

archon ''Archon'' ( gr, ἄρχων, árchōn, plural: ἄρχοντες, ''árchontes'') is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem αρχ-, mean ...

'' and '' droungarios'' of Malta - in Tunisia.

Early Byzantine sources on Malta

Justiniac period

One of the earliest mentions of the Maltese islands can be found in a list of donations by Emperor Constatine I in the early fourth century, which includes a grant to the

Lateran baptistery The domed octagonal Lateran Baptistery ( it, Battistero lateranense) stands somewhat apart from the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome, to which it has become joined by later construction. This baptistery was founded by Pope Sixtus III in 44 ...

of a ''massa'' with revenues of 222 ''solidi'' which was apparently located on the island of Gozo. However, the first proper mention of Medieval Malta in the context of the Eastern Roman Empire is found in Procopius' '' Bellum Vandalicum'' detailing the Byzantine campaign in North Africa. The Byzantine general Belisarius is described "touching at" Malta in 533 , while the Roman expeditionary force was sailing from Kaukana to North Africa. However, the Greek verb used can mean either "landed" or "approached." In the same passage, Procopius describes Malta as dividing the

Adriatic The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) ...

and Tyrrhenian seas, indicating that the islands may have lied on a maritime border separating Vandal and Byzantine spheres. The passage does not say that Belisarius conquered the islands, or that the Maltese islands were already in Byzantine hands. In fact, Malta is not included in the ''Synecdmus'' of Hierocles, which details a list of cities belonging to the Empire in 527/8. Malta probably passed on to the Byzantines around the time of their conquest of Sicily in 535. A further quote in Procopius' '' Bellum Gothicum'' describing the war against the Gothic kingdom of Italy, suggests that Malta formed part of the Empire by 544, although it does not mention the islands specifically. The final reference in Procopius regarding Malta refers to 550, regarding the voyage of Artabanes to Sicily. Appointed ''magister militum per Thracias,'' Artabanes was sent to replace the aged senator Liberius in command of an expedition under way against Sicily, which had recently been overrun by the

Ostrogoth The Ostrogoths ( la, Ostrogothi, Austrogothi) were a Roman-era Germanic people. In the 5th century, they followed the Visigoths in creating one of the two great Gothic kingdoms within the Roman Empire, based upon the large Gothic populations who ...

king Totila. Artabanes failed to catch up with the expedition before it sailed for Sicily, and his own fleet was driven back and scattered by severe storms in the

Ionian Sea The Ionian Sea ( el, Ιόνιο Πέλαγος, ''Iónio Pélagos'' ; it, Mar Ionio ; al, Deti Jon ) is an elongated bay of the Mediterranean Sea. It is connected to the Adriatic Sea to the north, and is bounded by Southern Italy, including C ...

, with Artabanes himself being unexpectedly saved after landing in Malta. Although there are suggestions that Artabanes reached Meleda instead of Malta, both the manuscript's tradition and geographic probability favour Malta. Other sources on Malta from the

Justinian dynasty The Byzantine Empire had its first golden age under the Justinian dynasty, which began in 518 AD with the accession of Justin I. Under the Justinian dynasty, particularly the reign of Justinian I, the empire reached its greatest territorial exte ...

are limited, with few details on the islands' history. The sixth-century writer

Arator Arator was a sixth-century Christian poet from Liguria in northwestern Italy. His best known work, ''De Actibus Apostolorum'', is a verse history of the Apostles. Biography Arator was probably of Ligurian origin. An orphan, he studied at Milan ...

described Malta as a ''statio'', a port of call for ships, although this is used in reference to St. Paul's shipwreck on the islands, and should not be used to infer the naval status of Malta, although reference to the harbours of Malta and Gozo are found in later Arabic texts.

Bishops of Malta

In 553, Julianus, Bishop of Malta ( Latin: ''Iulianus episcopus Melitensis'') is mentioned in ''Constitutum de Tribus Capitulis'' of Pope Virgilius, however there may be some ambiguity regarding the name and link with Malta due to inconsistencies in the names in different manuscripts. The first reference of a Bishop of Malta appears in three letters from Pope Gregory I, with the Pope asking Bishop Lucillus of Malta in 592 to ensure that the Maltese clergy holding lands belonging to the African church should pay the tax due on them. The lands are assumed by historians to be in Malta, and their link with the African church may be linked with Vandalic rule in the previous century. The second letter, dated October 598, asks the

Bishop of Syracuse The Archdiocese of Siracusa, also known as Syracuse, ( la, Archidioecesis Syracusana) is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic Church in Sicily. It became an archdiocese in 1844.George of Cyprus around c. 603 - c. 606.

Byzantine exiles in Malta

Malta was used as a place for exiles, as found in passages from two historians. In the ''Historia syntomos'', Patriarch Nikephoros details how Emperor Heraclius sent Theodorus, a ''magister'' by rank, to the island of Gaudomelete ( ''Greek'': ''Γαυδομελέτη''), ordering the ''dux'' of the place to amputate one of his feet upon arrival. This reveals that by 637, the date of the revolt which led to the exile of

John Athalarichos John Athalarichos ( el, ; la, Ioannes Athalaricus), also spelled as Atalarichos,#refKaegi2003, Kaegi 2003, p. 120. Athalaric,. and At'alarik, was an Legitimacy (family law), illegitimate son of the 7th century Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. In 637 ...

and Theodorus, Malta may have been governed by military officers, similar to the way Sicily and Italy were being ruled. The chronicler Theophanes describes how in 790, Emperor Constantine VI punished the leaders of the revolt in the Armeniac Theme by branding their faces and exiling the leaders to Sicily and "the other islands." Theophanes, p. 469

Administration

Secular government

A seal dated to the eight century was found, belonging to Nicetas, ''

'' and '' droungarios'' of Malta, ('' Greek:'' ''+ Νικήτᾀ δρονγγ' �ρίῳ� καὶἄρχοντ � Μελέτ᾿ �ς') with historians deducing that Malta may have been ruled by a high-ranking naval official, in command of a small fleet. Other historians have gone beyond this analysis, saying that Malta was the base of an important naval squadron under direct imperial, rather than thematic, control. However, the lack of evidence and sources, as well as historical close links between Sicily and Malta, are seen to count against both the existence of such a governing structure for Malta, as well as the existence of an important Byzantine naval base on the islands. A case could be made, however, for a Byzantine official being both the land army commander of a ''

droungos ''Droungos'' (Greek: , sometimes δρόγγος, ''drongos'') or ''drungus'' is a late Roman and Byzantine term for a battalion-sized military unit, and later for a local command guarding mountain districts. Its commander was a "" or "" (δρουγ� ...

,'' who had also taken over the role of an ''archon'', or civil governor of a town. Recent excavations have shed more light on Malta's role as a trading post, with regional political powers having strong vested interests in Malta during the 8th century. The islands are seen to act as a somehow privileged territory, acting as a bridge between North Africa and the

south of Italy Southern Italy ( it, Sud Italia or ) also known as ''Meridione'' or ''Mezzogiorno'' (), is a macroregion of the Italian Republic consisting of its southern half. The term ''Mezzogiorno'' today refers to regions that are associated with the peop ...

. Malta was capable of importing large amounts of goods from far off regions, and of links with both Byzantine and Arab trading networks. Urban cores, such as Melite, were comparatively affluent, politically powerful and enjoyed access to various imported goods, while peripheral areas such as

Ħal Safi Safi ( mt, Ħal Safi) is a village in the Southern Region of Malta, bordering Żurrieq and Kirkop. It has a population of 2,126 people as of March 2014. The formation of the village, as known today, goes back to the Punic-Roman period. The vi ...

, had access to more basic material culture.

Ecclesiastical government

Historians contend that the transfer of Sicilian dioceses from the Patriarchate of Rome to Constantinople, and the elevation of Syracuse to metropolitan status, obscure the ecclesiastical organisation of Malta during this period. No Bishops of Malta appeared at Roman synods or in Ecumenical councils in the East in the seventh, eight or ninth century. A Maltese bishop named Manas may have attended the Eight Ecumenical Council held in Constantinople in 869-870, and is identified with a Maltese bishop held as a captive in

Palermo Palermo ( , ; scn, Palermu , locally also or ) is a city in southern Italy, the capital (political), capital of both the autonomous area, autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan ...

by the Aghlabids in 878. However, no Maltese bishop is identified in the council's acts, making historians' identification unwarranted. In at least seven notitiae, the bishopric of Malta is classified as a bishopric under the metropolitan see of

Syracuse Syracuse may refer to: Places Italy *Syracuse, Sicily, or spelled as ''Siracusa'' *Province of Syracuse United States *Syracuse, New York **East Syracuse, New York **North Syracuse, New York *Syracuse, Indiana * Syracuse, Kansas *Syracuse, Miss ...

, or belonging to the province of Sicily. ''Notitia X'' and ''Notita III'' specifically mention '' protopopes'' appointed for Melite in the 12th and 13th centuries, and X mentions one, Nikolaos, and his wife, Milo, by name. Fiorini and Vella note that it was sometimes the Byzantine practice to appoint a protopope ( grc, πρτωπαπάς) to vacant dioceses, and the authors see this as evidence of continuity of Byzantine ecclesiastical hierarchy, in an albeit truncated form, under the period of Muslim rule; a Christian ἐπίσκοπος ("bishop") found on the island after its conquest by Roger II of Sicily was probably actually such a πρτωπαπάς instead.

Byzantine Basilica at Tas-Silġ

Malta - Marsaxlokk - Triq Xrobb l-Ghagin - Tas-Silg 08 ies

The Hellenistic temple at the multi-period sanctuary site at Tas-Silġ, between Żejtun and Marsaxlokk, was converted into a

Christian Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...

basilica. The basilica was built in the porticoed courtyard of the temple, which was roofed over. The square building had three naves with an apse at the eastern end. The prehistoric megalithic temple was reused as a baptistery, with the

font In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font is a matched set of type, with a piece (a "sort") for each glyph. A typeface consists of a range of such fonts that shared an overall design. In mod ...

placed in the middle of the ancient structure. The church, or at least its structure, remained in use until the 8th-9th centuries. A fortified wall with at least one tower was built around part of the site, possibly as a response to the Arab threat. More than two hundred Byzantine coins were found in the drain of the baptismal font, dating from the mid-4th century, the reforms by Justinian (538-9) and a gold coin dated to Constantine IV.

Culture

The architectural and artistic style prevalent in Malta was not that of Constantinople proper but rather the Byzantine styles of Sicily. Pottery has been discovered with distinctively Otranto-type '' amphorae'' markers, that further testify to the close ties between Malta and Southern Italy. The number of Greek inscriptions found in Malta and Gozo lead historians to believe that a degree of Hellenisation occurred, in a similar manner to the process seen in Sicily. The inscriptions, and the catacombs in which they were mostly found, usually date from the third to the fifth century. The basilica at Tas-Silġ was expanded, modified and reutilised to include a fortified settlement linked with Marsaxlokk harbour below. Ceramic remains from Tas-Silġ span from the sixth to the ninth century, evidence that the harbour and settlement had links over centuries with various parts of the Mediterranean. This is also confirmed by finds of a ''spatheion'' amphora in Grand Harbour, and late Roman amphorae in

Marsascala Marsaskala ( mt, Wied il-Għajn), also written as Marsascala and abbreviated as M'Skala, is a seaside town in the South Eastern Region of Malta which has grown around the small harbour at the head of Marsaskala Bay, a long, narrow inlet also know ...

, and other remains at

Ta' Xbiex Ta' Xbiex () is a locality and Local Council in the Central Region of Malta with a population of 2148 (estimated 2019) It is part of a small headland within the Marsamxett Harbour, right between the villages of Msida and Gżira. Etymology It ...

Manoel Island Manoel Island ( mt, Il-Gżira Manoel), formerly known as Bishop's Island ( mt, Il-Gżira tal-Isqof, it, Isola del Vescovo) or the ''Isolotto'', is a small island which forms part of the municipality of Gżira in Marsamxett Harbour, Malta. It is n ...

, Sliema creek and Mistra Bay. The quantity of remains leads historians to infer widespread use of Maltese harbours during the Byzantine era. In 1768, 260 late Roman North African amphorae were found stacked in a chamber of the Kortin warehouses, twenty four of which had graffiti of a religious nature on them. Given the distance from the main town, historians assume that these warehouse facilities were used for redistribution towards other harbours in the Central Mediterranean. Large quantities of Byzantine era pottery were also found at the Kortin promontory in

Marsa Marsa may refer to: Places *Marsa, Aude, a commune in the Aude départment of France * Marsa, Malta, a city in central Malta *Mârșa, a commune in Giurgiu County, Romania * La Marsa, a suburb of the city of Tunis, Tunisia *Mârșa, a village in Av ...

, with traces of a fire leading excavators to assume that the buildings and the quay were abandoned in late eight or early ninth century, with the date established due to the presence of globular amphorae on site. The presence of earlier ceramics at the same level may indicate an earlier abandoning. Warehouses in the inner harbour at Marsa were abandoned earlier than those in Kortin, due to silting, with no evidence of use found by the fifth or sixth century. Due to the silting, the main maritime activity probably concentrated on the Kortin area, a hypothesis which is confirmed by a number of later burial sites. Other burial remains linked with the Byzantine era are a number of catacombs, including

St. Paul's catacombs St. Paul's Catacombs are some of the most prominent features of Malta's early Christianity archeology. The archeological clearing of the site has revealed an extensive system of underground galleries and tombs dating from the third to the eighth ...

, the

Abbatija Tad-Dejr The Abbatija Tad-Dejr hypogeum, hypogeal complex is a paleochristian burial site in Rabat, Malta, Rabat, Malta. Although much smaller in size than those of Rome, the catacombs in Malta, especially the ones in Rabat, are among the most important ...

hypogeal complex, and Tal-Barrani.

Muslim conquest

With the loss of the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa first, and eventually the loss of Sicily, Malta found itself in an increasingly politically fragmented Mediterranean. Malta lost out on its position between the Aegean and North Africa when the Byzantine Empire lost the grain producing provinces of Africa. The islands experienced a less favourable economic situation, the abandonment of the Marsa main port and warehouses, as well as Arab raids. These led to a decreased potential for transhipment of goods through Malta and the provision of maritime services. Fortifications Interpretation Centre (Valletta) 08

Fortifications Interpretation Centre (Valletta) 08

This new geopolitical fragmentation was mirrored by developments in Malta, as rural settlement sites were either abandoned or witnessed serious declines in the eight and ninth centuries, with burial sites across the islands being abandoned, implying the abandonment of open spaces in rural and coastal areas and a move to fortified nuclei. The main urban centre of the island, Melite, was heavily modified during this period, with changes including the strengthening of fortifications and the addition of a fortress within the town. From the second half of the seventh century onward, Muslim raiders were active in the Central Mediterranean. Although its strategic position meant that Malta came under increasing pressure, there are no references to raids on Malta before the ninth century. There is a reference to a probable raid on Malta in the chronicles of Ibn al-Athir in 835-836, saying that

Abu Iqal Abu Iqal al-Aghlab ibn Ibrahim () was the fourth Aghlabid The Aghlabids ( ar, الأغالبة) were an Arab dynasty of emirs from the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim, who ruled Ifriqiya and parts of Southern Italy, Sicily, and possibly Sard ...

, from the al-Aghlab dynasty, prepared an expedition which attacked the islands near Sicily and obtained great plunder. This attack is usually taken to be nothing more than a reconnaissance raid, as historians view the attack to be too early for a definitive conquest of Malta. All Greek and Arab sources agree that the conquest of Malta occurred later. Roman columns in front of Sousse ribat

Of all the islands around Sicily, Malta was the last to remain in Byzantine hands, and in 869 a fleet under Ahmad ibn Umar ibn Ubaydallah ibn al-Aghlab al-Habashi attacked it. The Byzantines, having received timely reinforcements, resisted successfully at first, but in 870 Muhammad sent a fleet from Sicily to the island, and the capital Melite fell on 29 August 870. The local governor was captured, the town was plundered—Ahmad al-Habashi reportedly took along the local cathedral's marble columns to decorate his palace—and its fortifications razed. The fall of Malta had important ramifications for the defence of what remained of Byzantine Sicily: with

Reggio Calabria Reggio di Calabria ( scn, label= Southern Calabrian, Riggiu; el, label= Calabrian Greek, Ρήγι, Rìji), usually referred to as Reggio Calabria, or simply Reggio by its inhabitants, is the largest city in Calabria. It has an estimated popul ...

and now Malta in their hands, the Muslims completed their encirclement of Sicily, and could easily interdict any aid sent from the east.

Ibn Khaldun Ibn Khaldun (; ar, أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي, ; 27 May 1332 – 17 March 1406, 732-808 AH) was an Arab The Historical Muhammad', Irving M. Zeitlin, (Polity Press, 2007), p. 21; "It is, of ...

reports that the conquest of Malta by the Aghlabids happened as early as 868. Ibn al-Khatib dates the conquest of Malta, and the capture of its "''king"'' between 11 February and 12 March 875, while

Al-Nuwayri Al-Nuwayrī, full name Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad bin ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-Nuwayrī ( ar, شهاب الدين أحمد بن عبد الوهاب النويري, born April 5, 1279 in Akhmim, present-day Egypt – died June 5, 1333 in Cairo) was an Eg ...

refers to the same general period, without giving a specific date. Ibn al-Athir recounts that in 869-870, the

Emir of Sicily The Emirate of Sicily ( ar, إِمَارَة صِقِلِّيَة, ʾImārat Ṣiqilliya) was an Islamic kingdom that ruled the island of Sicily from 831 to 1091. Its capital was Palermo (Arabic: ''Balarm''), which during this period became ...

sent an army to Malta, as the island was being besieged by the Byzantines who then fled. This date is also confirmed by a Greek chronicle from Cassano,

Calabria , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , demographics1_title2 ...

, saying that the island of Melite surrendered on 29 August 870. This date is again confirmed in another Arab source, the

Kitab al-'Uyun The ''Kitab al-'uyun wa'l-hada'iq fi akhbar al-haqa'iq'' ( ar, كتاب العيون والحدائق في أخبار الحقائق) is an Arabic chronicle covering Muslim history up to the year 961 AD. The author of the work is anonymous, but ...

, which says that Malta was conquered by Abdallah I, and gives the date for the conquest to be three days before

Ramadan , type = islam , longtype = Religious , image = Ramadan montage.jpg , caption=From top, left to right: A crescent moon over Sarıçam, Turkey, marking the beginning of the Islamic month of Ramadan. Ramadan Quran reading in Bandar Torkaman, Iran. ...

256 AH, that is, 28 August 870. Historians explain the slight discrepancy due to uncertainties in lunar observations relating to the Islamic calendar. The siege of Melite (modern

Mdina Mdina ( mt, L-Imdina ; phn, 𐤌𐤋𐤈, Maleṭ; grc, Μελίττη, Melite (ancient city), Melíttē; ar, مدينة, Madīnah; ), also known by its Italian-language titles ("Old City") and ("Notable City"), is a fortifications of Mdin ...

) was initially led by Halaf al-Hādim, a renowned engineer, but he was killed and replaced by Sawāda Ibn Muḥammad. The city withstood the siege for some weeks or months, but it ultimately fell to the invaders, and its inhabitants were massacred and the city was sacked. However, Ibn al-Athir states that by 870 Malta was already a Muslim settlement, and that the Arab-held island was being besieged by a Byzantine fleet. After a relief force was sent from Muslim Sicily, the Byzantines retreated without a fight on 28 Ramadan 256 (29 August 870). Some historians surmise that the local population sided with the Byzantine fleet, breaking a prior covenant with the Arab rulers, such that the Muslims then retaliated, imprisoned the bishop, and destroyed the islands' churches. The use of marble from the churches of Melite in the

Ribat of Sousse Ribat of Sousse () is a ribat in the city of Sousse, Tunisia. Although scholars differ on the chronology of its original construction, it was most likely founded in the 8th century and reconstructed or completed in its current form during the earl ...

is confirmed by an inscription which translates to:

Byzantine attempt to retake Malta

Although al-Himyarī states that Malta remained an "uninhabited ruin" after the siege and it was only repopulated in 1048–49, archaeological evidence suggests that

was already a thriving Muslim settlement by the beginning of the 11th century. The Byzantines besieged this new settlement in 445 AH (1053–54 AD), "with many ships and in great numbers." Mdina's inhabitants asked for clemency but were refused. The Muslims were not numerous, and they were outnumbered by their slaves. The slaves were offered their freedom by the Muslims, and the slaves agreed with these terms. The invaders began an assault on the following day, but after some fighting they were repelled "and they fled defeated without looking back," with most of the Byzantine ships being lost in the attack. Historians cannot confirm whether this attack was an attempt to recapture the islands and establish a naval base, or whether it was a punitive attack on pirates which may have operated from the islands. Following this episode, the Byzantines never attempted to attack Malta again.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Primary

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Secondary

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Byzantine Malta 530s establishments in the Byzantine Empire 9th-century disestablishments in the Byzantine Empire 870 disestablishments History of Malta Provinces of the Byzantine Empire States and territories established in the 530s States and territories disestablished in the 9th century