vowel syncopation.
Jammu & Kashmir Burushaski shares more similarities with the dialect spoken in Nagar than with that spoken in Hunza.
The
Srinagar
Srinagar (English: , ) is the largest city and the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, India. It lies in the Kashmir Valley on the banks of the Jhelum River, a tributary of the Indus, and Dal and Anchar lakes. The city is known for its natu ...
variety of Burushaski has been known as low toned and is spoken a Kashmiri way of speaking the language.
The Srinagar variety of Burushaski has only 300 speakers.
Writing system
Burushaski is a predominantly spoken rather than written language. Occasionally the
Urdu alphabet
The Urdu alphabet (), is the right-to-left alphabet used for Urdu. It is a modification of the Persian script, which is itself a derivative of the Arabic script. The Urdu alphabet has up to 39 or 40 distinct letters with no distinct letter c ...
is used, and there are some specific characters in
Unicode
Unicode, formally The Unicode Standard,The formal version reference is is an information technology Technical standard, standard for the consistent character encoding, encoding, representation, and handling of Character (computing), text expre ...
, but no fixed
orthography
An orthography is a set of conventions for writing a language, including norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.
Most transnational languages in the modern period have a writing system, and mos ...
exists. Adu Wazir Shafi wrote a book ''Burushaski Razon'' using a
Latin script
The Latin script, also known as Roman script, is an alphabetic writing system based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, derived from a form of the Greek alphabet which was in use in the ancient Greek city of Cumae, in southern Italy ...
.
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
an sources record a ''Bru zha'' language of the Gilgit valley, which appears to have been Burushaski, whose script was one of five scripts used to write the extinct
Zhang Zhung language
Zhang-Zhung () is an extinct Sino-Tibetan language that was spoken in what is now western Tibet. It is attested in a bilingual text called ''A Cavern of Treasures'' (''mDzod phug'') and several shorter texts.
A small number of documents preserv ...
. Although Burushaski may once have been a significant
literary language, no ''Bru zha'' manuscripts are known to have survived. There is a very voluminous Buddhist tantra of the 'Ancient' (''rNying ma'') school of Tibetan Buddhism, preserved in Tibetan as the ''mDo dgongs 'dus'', which has been the subject of numerous Tibetological publications, including a recent monograph by Jacob P. Dalton, ''The Gathering of Intentions'',
[Dalton, Jacob P. 2016. Columbia University Press. . This book is a state of the art history of this ''tantra'' in Tibet, but does not deal in depth with the issue of its original source and whether it was actually translated from the Burushaski.] which is supposed to be translated from the Burushaski (''bru zha'i skad''). It contains words that are not Sanskrit but which, at this stage, it has not been ascertained whether they could actually be related to the Burushaski, or belong to another language (or, else, be purely "elfic"). If at least part of this text had actually been translated from Burushaski, it would make it one of the major monuments of an apparently lost literature.
Linguists working on Burushaski use various makeshift transcriptions based on the Latin alphabet, most commonly that by Berger (see below), in their publications.
Phonology
Burushaski primarily has five vowels, /i e a o u/. Various contractions result in long vowels; stressed vowels (marked with acute accents in Berger's transcription) tend to be longer and less "open" than unstressed ones ( as opposed to ). Long vowels also occur in loans and in a few onomatopoeic words (Grune 1998). All vowels have nasal counterparts in Hunza (in some expressive words) and in Nager (also in proper names and a few other words).
Berger (1998) finds the following consonants to be
phonemic, shown below in his transcription and in the
IPA
IPA commonly refers to:
* India pale ale, a style of beer
* International Phonetic Alphabet, a system of phonetic notation
* Isopropyl alcohol, a chemical compound
IPA may also refer to:
Organizations International
* Insolvency Practitioners ...
:
Notes:
Grammar
Burushaski is a
double-marking language and word order is generally
subject–object–verb
Subject ( la, subiectus "lying beneath") may refer to:
Philosophy
*'' Hypokeimenon'', or ''subiectum'', in metaphysics, the "internal", non-objective being of a thing
**Subject (philosophy), a being that has subjective experiences, subjective con ...
.
Noun
A noun () is a word that generally functions as the name of a specific object or set of objects, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.Example nouns for:
* Living creatures (including people, alive, d ...
s in Burushaski are divided into four
genders
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures u ...
: human masculine, human feminine, countable objects, and uncountable ones (similar to
mass noun
In linguistics, a mass noun, uncountable noun, non-count noun, uncount noun, or just uncountable, is a noun with the syntactic property that any quantity of it is treated as an undifferentiated unit, rather than as something with discrete elemen ...
s). The assignment of a noun to a particular gender is largely predictable. Some words can belong both to the countable and to the uncountable class, producing differences in meaning. For example, when countable, ''báalt'' means 'apple' but when uncountable, it means 'apple tree' (Grune 1998).
Noun
morphology
Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to:
Disciplines
*Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts
*Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies, ...
consists of the noun stem, a
possessive
A possessive or ktetic form (abbreviated or ; from la, possessivus; grc, κτητικός, translit=ktētikós) is a word or grammatical construction used to indicate a relationship of possession in a broad sense. This can include strict owne ...
prefix
A prefix is an affix which is placed before the Word stem, stem of a word. Adding it to the beginning of one word changes it into another word. For example, when the prefix ''un-'' is added to the word ''happy'', it creates the word ''unhappy'' ...
(mandatory for some nouns, and thus an example of inherent possession), and
number
A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual numbers c ...
and
case
Case or CASE may refer to:
Containers
* Case (goods), a package of related merchandise
* Cartridge case or casing, a firearm cartridge component
* Bookcase, a piece of furniture used to store books
* Briefcase or attaché case, a narrow box to c ...
suffixes. Distinctions in number are singular, plural, indefinite, and grouped. Cases include
absolutive
In grammar, the absolutive case (abbreviated ) is the case of nouns in ergative–absolutive languages that would generally be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of nominative– ...
,
ergative/
oblique,
genitive
In grammar, the genitive case (abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can al ...
, and several
locatives; the latter indicate both location and direction and may be compounded.
Burushaski
verb
A verb () is a word (part of speech) that in syntax generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual descri ...
s have three basic stems: past tense, present tense, and consecutive. The past stem is the citation form and is also used for
imperatives and
nominalization
In linguistics, nominalization or nominalisation is the use of a word that is not a noun (e.g., a verb, an adjective or an adverb) as a noun, or as the head of a noun phrase. This change in functional category can occur through morphological tr ...
; the consecutive stem is similar to a past participle and is used for
coordination
Coordination may refer to:
* Coordination (linguistics), a compound grammatical construction
* Coordination complex, consisting of a central atom or ion and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions
* Coordination number or ligancy of a centr ...
.
Agreement Agreement may refer to:
Agreements between people and organizations
* Gentlemen's agreement, not enforceable by law
* Trade agreement, between countries
* Consensus, a decision-making process
* Contract, enforceable in a court of law
** Meeting o ...
on the verb has both
nominative
In grammar, the nominative case (abbreviated ), subjective case, straight case or upright case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or (in Latin and formal variants of Engl ...
and
ergative features: transitive verbs and unaccusatives mark both the subject and the object of a clause, while unergatives verbs mark only subject agreement on the verb. Altogether, a verb can take up to four prefixes and six suffixes.
Nouns
Noun classes
In Burushaski, there are four
noun class
In linguistics, a noun class is a particular category of nouns. A noun may belong to a given class because of the characteristic features of its referent, such as gender, animacy, shape, but such designations are often clearly conventional. Some ...
es, similar to declensional classes in
Indo-European languages
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutc ...
, but unlike Indo-European, the nominal classes in Burushaski are associated with four grammatical "genders":
* m = male human beings, gods and spirits
* f = female human beings and spirits
* x = animals,
countable nouns
* y = abstract concepts, fluids, uncountable nouns
Below, the abbreviation "h" will stand for the combination of the m- and f-classes, while "hx" will stand for the combination of the m-, f- and x-classes. Nouns in the x-class typically refer to countable, non-human beings or things, for example animals, fruit, stones, eggs, or coins; conversely, nouns in the y-class are as a rule uncountable abstractions or mass nouns, such as rice, fire, water, snow, wool, etc.
However, these rules are not universal – countable objects in the y-class are sometimes encountered, e.g. ''ha'', 'house'. Related words can subtly change their meanings when used in different classes – for example, ''bayú'', when a member of the x-class, means salt in clumps, but when in the y-class, it means powdered salt. Fruit trees are understood collectively and placed in the y-class, but their individual fruits belong to the x-class. Objects made of particular materials can belong to either the x- or the y- class: stone and wood are in the x-class, but metal and leather in the y-class. The
article
Article often refers to:
* Article (grammar), a grammatical element used to indicate definiteness or indefiniteness
* Article (publishing), a piece of nonfictional prose that is an independent part of a publication
Article may also refer to:
G ...
,
adjectives
In linguistics, an adjective (abbreviated ) is a word that generally modifies a noun or noun phrase or describes its referent. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun.
Traditionally, adjectives were considered one of the mai ...
,
numerals and other attributes must be in
agreement Agreement may refer to:
Agreements between people and organizations
* Gentlemen's agreement, not enforceable by law
* Trade agreement, between countries
* Consensus, a decision-making process
* Contract, enforceable in a court of law
** Meeting o ...
with the noun class of their subject.
Pluralisation
There are two
numbers in Burushaski: singular and
plural
The plural (sometimes abbreviated pl., pl, or ), in many languages, is one of the values of the grammatical category of number. The plural of a noun typically denotes a quantity greater than the default quantity represented by that noun. This de ...
. The singular is unmarked, while the plural is expressed by means of suffix, which vary depending on the class of the noun:
* h-class: possible suffixes
* h- and x-class: possible suffixes
* y-class: possible suffixes (Nagar dialect)
Some nouns admit two or three different prefixes, while others have no distinctive suffix, and occur only in the plural, e.g. ''bras'' 'rice', ''gur'' 'wheat', ''bishké'', 'fur', (cf.
plurale tantum). On the other hand, there are also nouns which have identical forms in the singular and plural, e.g. ''hagúr'' 'horses'. Adjectives have a unique plural suffix, whose form depends on the class of the noun they modify, e.g. ''burúm'' 'white' gives the x-class plural ''burum-išo'' and the y-class plural ''burúm-ing''.
Examples of pluralisation in Burushaski:
* (m), pl. ''wazíirishu'' 'vizier, minister'
* (m), pl. ''huri'' 'man' (stress shifts)
* (f), pl. ''gushínga'' 'woman' (stress shifts)
* (f), pl. ''daseyoo'' 'girl', 'unmarried woman'
* (x), pl. ''huká'' 'dog'
* (x), pl. ''tilí'' 'walnut'
* (y), pl. ''theleng'' 'walnut tree'
Declension
Burushaski is an
ergative language. It has five primary
cases.
The case suffixes are appended to the plural suffix, e.g. ''Huséiniukutse'', 'the people of Hussein' (ergative plural). The genitive ending is irregular, /mo/, for singular f-class nouns, but /-e/ in all others (identical to the ergative ending). The dative ending, /-ar/, /-r/ is attached to the genitive ending for singular f-class nouns, but to the stem for all others. Examples:
* ''hir-e'' 'the man's', ''gus-mo'' 'the woman's' (gen.)
* ''hir-ar'' 'to the man', ''gus-mu-r'' 'to the woman' (dat.)
The genitive is placed before the thing possessed: ''Hunzue tham'', 'the Emir of Hunza.'
The endings of the secondary cases are formed from a secondary case suffix (or infix) and one of the primary endings /-e/, /-ar/ or /-um/. These endings are directional, /-e/ being locative (answering 'where?'), /-ar/ being terminative (answering 'where to?'), and /-um/ being ablative (answering 'where from?'). The infixes, and their basic meanings, are as follows:
# ''-ts-'' 'at'
# ''-ul-'' 'in'
# ''-aṭ-'' 'on; with'
# ''-al-'' 'near' (only in the Hunza dialect)
From these, the following secondary or compound cases are formed:
The regular endings /-ul-e/ and /-ul-ar/ are archaic and are now replaced by /-ul-o/ and /-ar-ulo/ respectively.
Pronouns and pronominal prefixes
Nouns indicating parts of the body and kinship terms are accompanied by an obligatory pronominal prefix. Thus, one cannot simply say 'mother' or 'arm' in Burushaski, but only 'my arm', 'your mother', 'his father', etc. For example, the root ''mi'' 'mother', is never found in isolation, instead one finds:
* ''i-mi'' 'his mother', ''mu-mi'' 'her mother', "gu-mi" 'your mother'(3f sg.), ''u-mi'' 'their mother' (3h pl.), ''u-mi-tsaro'' 'their mothers'(3h pl.).
The pronominal, or personal, prefixes agree with the person, number and – in the third person, the class of their noun. A summary of the basic forms is given in the following table:
Personal pronouns in Burushaski distinguish proximal and distal forms, e.g. ''khin'' 'he, this one here', but ''in'', 'he, that one there'. In the oblique, there are additional abbreviated forms.
Numerals
The Burushaski number system is
vigesimal
vigesimal () or base-20 (base-score) numeral system is based on twenty (in the same way in which the decimal numeral system is based on ten). '' Vigesimal'' is derived from the Latin adjective '' vicesimus'', meaning 'twentieth'.
Places
In ...
, i.e. based on the number 20. For example, 20 ''altar'', 40 ''alto-altar'' (2 times 20), 60 ''iski-altar'' (3 times 20) etc. The base numerals are:
* 1 ''han'' (or ''hen'', ''hak'')
* 2 ''altó'' (or ''altán'')
* 3 ''isko'' (or ''iskey'')
* 4 ''wálto''
* 5 ''čindó''
* 6 ''mishíndo''
* 7 ''thaló''
* 8 ''altámbo''
* 9 ''hunchó''
* 10 ''tóorumo'' (also ''toorimi'' and ''turma'')
* 100 ''tha''
Examples of compound numerals:
11 ''turma-han'', 12 ''turma-alto'', 13 ''turma-isko'', ... , 19 ''turma-hunti'';
20 ''altar'', 30 ''altar-toorumo'', 40 ''alto-altar'', 50 ''alto-altar-toorumo'', 60 ''iski-altar'' and so on;
21 ''altar-hak'', 22 ''altar-alto'', 23 ''altar-isko'' and so on.
Verbs
Overview
The verbal morphology of Burushaski is extremely complicated and rich in forms. Many sound changes can take place, including
assimilation
Assimilation may refer to:
Culture
*Cultural assimilation, the process whereby a minority group gradually adapts to the customs and attitudes of the prevailing culture and customs
**Language shift, also known as language assimilation, the progre ...
,
deletion
Deletion or delete may refer to:
Computing
* File deletion, a way of removing a file from a computer's file system
* Code cleanup, a way of removing unnecessary variables, data structures, cookies, and temporary files in a programming language
* ...
and
accent shift, which are unique for almost every verb. Here, we can specify only certain basic principles.
The Burushaski
finite verb falls into the following categories:
For many
transitive verb
A transitive verb is a verb that accepts one or more objects, for example, 'cleaned' in ''Donald cleaned the window''. This contrasts with intransitive verbs, which do not have objects, for example, 'panicked' in ''Donald panicked''.
Transitiv ...
s, in addition to the subject, the (direct) object is also indicated, also by pronominal prefixes which vary according to person, number and class. All verbs have negative forms, and many intransitive verbs also have derived transitive forms. The
infinitive
Infinitive (abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The word is deri ...
forms – which in Burushaski are the absolutives of the past and present, the perfect participle, and two infinitives – admit all the finite variations except tense and mood. Infinitive forms are made together with auxiliary verbs and periphrastic forms.
The 11 positions of the finite verb
All verb forms can be constructed according to a complex but regular position system. Berger describes a total of 11 possible positions, or slots, although not all of these will be filled in any given verb form. Many positions also have several alternative contents (indicated by A/B/C below). The verb stem is in position 5, preceded by four possible prefixes and followed by seven possible suffixes. The following table gives an overview of the positions and their functions
Formation of tenses and moods
The formation of the tenses and moods involves the use of several positions, or slots, in complicated ways. The preterite, perfect, pluperfect and conative are formed from the 'simple stem,' whereas the present, imperfect, future and conditional are formed from the 'present stem,' which is itself formed from the simple stem by placing -č- in position 7. The optative and imperative are derived directly from the stem. Altogether, the schema is as follows:
The formation of the tenses and moods of the verb ''her'' 'to cry', without prefixes:
Indication of the subject and object
The subject and object of the verb are indicated by the use of personal prefixes and suffixes in positions 3, 8 and 10 as follows:
The personal prefixes are identical to the pronominal prefixes of nouns (mandatory with body parts and kinship terms, as above). A simplified overview of the forms of the affixes is given in the following table:
For example, the construction of the preterite of the transitive verb ''phus'' 'to tie', with prefixes and suffixes separated by hyphens, is as follows :
* ''i-phus-i-m-i'' "he ties him" (filled positions: 3-5-8-9-10)
* ''mu-phus-i-m-i'' "he ties her (f)"
* ''u-phus-i-m-i'' "he ties them (pl. hx)"
* ''mi-phus-i-m-i'' "he ties us"
* ''i-phus-i-m-an'' "we/you/they tie him"
* ''mi-phus-i-m-an'' "you/they tie us"
* ''i-phus-i-m-a'' "I tie it"
* ''gu-phus-i-m-a'' "I tie you"
The personal affixes are also used when the noun occupies the role of the subject or the object, e.g. ''hir i-ír-i-mi'' 'the man died'. With intransitive verbs, the subject function is indicated by both a prefix and a suffix, as in:
* ''gu-ir-č-u-m-a'' "you will die" (future)
* ''i-ghurts-i-m-i'' "he sank" (preterite)
Personal prefixes do not occur in all verbs and all tenses. Some verbs do not admit personal prefixes, others still do so only under certain circumstances. Personal prefixes used with intransitive verbs often express a volitional function, with prefixed forms indicating an action contrary to the intention of the subject. For example:
* ''hurúṭ-i-m-i'' "he sat down" (volitional action without prefix)
* ''i-ír-i-m-i'' "he died" (involuntary action with prefix)
* ''ghurts-i-mi'' "he went willingly underwater", "he dove" (without prefix)
* ''i-ghurts-i-m-i'' "he went unwillingly underwater", "he sank" (with prefix)
The d- prefix
A number of verbs – mostly according to their root form – are found with the d-prefix in position 2, which occurs before a consonant according to
vowel harmony
In phonology, vowel harmony is an Assimilation (linguistics), assimilatory process in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – have to be members of the same natural class (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is t ...
. The precise semantic function of the d-prefix is unclear. With primary transitive verbs the d-prefix, always without personal prefixes, forms regular intransitives. Examples:
* ''i-phalt-i-mi'' 'he breaks it open' (transitive)
* ''du-phalt-as'' 'to break open, to explode' (intransitive)
A master's thesis research work of a native speaker of Burushaski on Middle Voice Construction in the Hunza Dialect claims that the
d-verbal prefix is an overt morphological middle marker for MV constructions, while the
-verbal prefix is a morphological marker for passive voice.
The data primarily come from the Hunza dialect of Burushaski, but analogous phenomena can be observed in other dialects. This research is based on a corpus of 120 dd-prefix verbs. This research has showed that position on the verb template is occupied by voice-marker in Burushaski. The author argues that the middle marker is a semantic category of its own and that it is clearly distinguished from the reflexive marker in this language. The middle marker (MM) means the grammatical device used to "indicate that the two semantic roles of Initiator and Endpoint refer to a single holistic entity" (Kemmer 1993: 47). In the view of that definition, I look at a middle marked verb in Burushaski and illustration follows the example.
* ''hiles dd-i-il-imi'' 'the boy drenched'
See also
*
Burushaski comparative vocabulary list (
Wiktionary
Wiktionary ( , , rhyming with "dictionary") is a multilingual, web-based project to create a free content dictionary of terms (including words, phrases, proverbs, linguistic reconstructions, etc.) in all natural languages and in a number ...
)
*
Partawi Shah
Partaw-i Shah Nasir al-Din Nasir Hubb-i 'Ali Hunzai (17 May 1917 – 15 January 2017), known also as '' 'Allamah'' (lit. learned) ''Hunzai', 'Allamah Sahib'', or by his epithets, ''Baba-yi Burushaski'' (lit. The Father of Burushaski), ''Lisan al- ...
*
Languages of Pakistan
References
Bibliography
* Anderson, Gregory D. S. 1997. Burushaski Morphology. In ''Morphologies of Asia and Africa'', ed. by Alan Kaye. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
* Anderson, Gregory D. S. 1997. Burushaski Phonology. In ''Phonologies of Asia and Africa'', ed. by Alan Kaye. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
* Anderson, Gregory D. S. 1999. M. Witzel's "South Asian Substrate Languages" from a Burushaski Perspective. ''Mother Tongue'' (Special Issue, October 1999).
* Anderson, Gregory D. S. forthcoming b. Burushaski. In ''Language Islands: Isolates and Microfamilies of Eurasia'', ed. by D.A. Abondolo. London: Curzon Press.
* Backstrom, Peter C. ''Burushaski'' in Backstrom and Radloff (eds.), ''Languages of northern areas, Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, 2. Islamabad'', National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Qaid-i-Azam University and
Summer Institute of Linguistics (1992), 31–54.
* Berger, Hermann. 1974. ''Das Yasin-Burushaski (Werchikwar)''. Volume 3 of ''Neuindische Studien'', ed. by Hermann Berger, Lothar Lutze and Günther Sontheimer. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Berger, Hermann. 1998. ''Die Burushaski-Sprache von Hunza und Nager''
he B. language of H. and N.
He or HE may refer to:
Language
* He (pronoun), an English pronoun
* He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ
* He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets
* He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' in ...
Three volumes: ''Grammatik''
rammar ''Texte mit Übersetzungen''
exts with translations ''Wörterbuch''
ictionary Altogether Volume 13 of ''Neuindische Studien'' (ed. by Hermann Berger, Heidrun Brückner and Lothar Lutze). Wiesbaden: Otto Harassowitz.
* Grune, Dick. 1998
Burushaski – An Extraordinary Language in the Karakoram Mountains
*
* Karim, Piar. 2013. ''Middle Voice Construction in Burushaski: From the Perspective of a Native Speaker of the Hunza Dialect. ''Unpublished MA Thesis. Denton: University of North Texas. Department of Linguistics.
*
Morgenstierne, Georg. 1945. Notes on Burushaski Phonology. ''Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap'' 13: 61–95.
* Munshi, Sadaf. 2006. ''Jammu and Kashmir Burushaski: Language, language contact, and change.'' Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Department of Linguistics.
* Munshi, Sadaf. 2010. "Contact-induced language change in a trilingual context: the case of Burushaski in Srinagar". In Diachronica. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 27.1: pp32–72.
Further reading
*
Bashir, Elena. 2000. A Thematic Survey of Burushaski Research. ''History of Language'' 6.1: 1–14.
* Berger, Hermann. 1956. Mittelmeerische Kulturpflanzennamen aus dem Burušaski
ames of Mediterranean cultured plants from B. ''Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft'' 9: 4-33.
* Berger, Hermann. 1959. Die Burušaski-Lehnwörter in der Zigeunersprache
Gypsy language">Romani_language.html" ;"title="he B. loanwords in the Romani language">Gypsy language Indo-Iranian Journal 3.1: 17–43.
* Casule Ilija. 2016. Evidence for the Indo-European and Balkan Origin of Burushaski.München: Lincom GmbH. 205 p.Lincom Etymological Studies 05.
* Casule, Ilija. 2017. Burushaski etymological dictionary of the inherited Indo-European lexicon. München: Lincom GmbH. 325 p. (LINCOM Etymological Studies; no. 6)
* Casule, Ilija. 2018, New Burushaski etymologies and the origin of the ethnonym Burúśo, Burúśaski, Brugaski and Miśáski. Acta Orientalia. Vol. 79: 27–71.
*
Lorimer, D. L. R. 1935–1938. ''The Burushaski Language'' (3 vols.). Oslo: Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning.
* Munshi, Sadaf. 2016. ''Burushaski Language Resource''. A digital collection of Burushaski oral literature available at URL: https://digital.library.unt.edu/explore/collections/BURUS/
* van Skyhawk, Hugh. 1996. Libi Kisar. Ein Volksepos im Burushaski von Nager. ''Asiatische Studien'' 133. .
* van Skyhawk, Hugh. 2003. Burushaski-Texte aus Hispar. Materialien zum Verständnis einer archaischen Bergkultur in Nordpakistan. ''Beiträge zur Indologie'' 38. .
* Tiffou, Étienne. 1993. ''Hunza Proverbs''. University of Calgary Press.
* Tiffou, Étienne. 1999. ''Parlons Bourouchaski''. Paris: L'Harmattan.
* Tiffou, Étienne. 2000. Current Research in Burushaski: A Survey. ''History of Language'' 6(1): 15–20.
* Tikkanen, Bertil. 1988. On Burushaski and other ancient substrata in northwest South Asia. ''Studia Orientalia'' 64: 303–325.
* Varma, Siddheshwar. 1941. Studies in Burushaski Dialectology. ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Letters'' 7: 133–173.
External links
Burushaski Language Documentation ProjectBurushaski basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical DatabaseNoboru. 2012. ''A reference grammar of Eastern Burushaski''.Jammu and Kashmir Burushaski: Language, Language contact and change
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Language isolates of Asia">Burushaski">
Language isolates of Asia
Languages of Gilgit-Baltistan
Languages of Jammu and Kashmir
Endangered languages of India
Hunza
Burusho people
Subject–object–verb languages