Bukiyip (Bukiyúp), or Mountain Arapesh, is an Arapesh language ( Torricelli) spoken by around 16,000 people between Yangoru and Maprik in the

East Sepik Province East Sepik is a province in Papua New Guinea. Its capital is Wewak. East Sepik has an estimated population of 433,481 people (2010 census) and is 43,426 km square in size. History Cherubim Dambui was appointed as East Sepik's first premier ...

Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...

. Bukiyip follows the SVO typology. The Arapesh languages are known for their complex noun-phrase agreement system (Bukiyip has 18 of these noun classes).

Classification

There are two primary

dialect The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , 'discourse', from , 'through' and , 'I speak') can refer to either of two distinctly different types of Linguistics, linguistic phenomena: One usage refers to a variety (linguisti ...

s of Bukiyip Chamaun-Yabonuh and Ilipeim-Yamil (western) and two minor dialects Buki and Lohuhwim. Given significant variation among dialects, linguist Robert Conrad suggests that Bukiyip is likely part of dialect chain that also involves other Arapesh languages. The dialects may be further generalized as Coastal Arapesh and Mountain Bukiyip.

Phonology

Syllable structure

Syllabic stress is usually placed on the penultimate syllable, which has a higher pitch. There are four contrastive intonation contours. # Final Intonation - falling pitch on the last syllable, followed by a pause # Non-final Intonation - level mid pitch on the last syllable, followed by a pause # Interrogative Intonation - level mid/high pitch on the last word # Imperative Intonation - high pitch and heavy stress throughout clause with a rapid pitch drop on the last syllable

Consonants

written as: p, t, k, b, d, g, s, ch, j, h, m, n, ny, l, r, w, y

Vowels

Initial vowels clusters: ou, au, ai, ia Medial vowel clusters: e (a,o,i,u), a (u,e,i), i (é,a,e), o (u,i), uu, úo Final vowel clusters: eo, ou, uu written as: i, e, a, o, u, æ, é, ú

Morphophonemics

Bukiyip has 18 basic rules for

morphophonemic Morphophonology (also morphophonemics or morphonology) is the branch of linguistics that studies the interaction between morphological and phonological or phonetic processes. Its chief focus is the sound changes that take place in morphemes (mi ...

shifts (rules 8-18 primarily apply to the Chamaun-Yabonuh and Buki dialects). # V_cC_alv → V_fC_alv (e.g. p-a-chuh → pechuh) # w + ú → u, ú + w → uw, i + ú → i (e.g. i-ú-nak → inak) # ny + u → nyú (e.g. bolany+umu → bolanyumu) # ú + C_rV_r → uC_rV_r, eC_rV_r → oC_rV_r (e.g. p-ú-hok → puhok) # a + CVc → éCV_c (e.g. n-a-bah →nébah) # V_c + C + w → V_rCw, where V_c is not a, (e.g. ny-ú-hwech → nyuhwech) # Cw + V_r → CV_r (e.g. →) # i# + i → i (e.g. i-ú-tak → itak) # #w + é → #wo (e.g. kw-é-nak → konak) # m# + ú → mu (e.g. m-ú-bo → mubo) # #V_c +tV_r → otV_r (e.g. atúwe → otuwe) # e# + úk → eik (e.g. +-úk → ) # C# + CV_c → CV_cCV_c (e.g. chagas + búk → chagasúbúk) # ú + C# + u → uCu (e.g. u-túl-úgún+-u → utulugunu) # ú# + C + u# → oCu# (e.g. natalú → natalogu) # V_rC_r# + ú → V_rC_ru (e.g. chaklipom+-úk →chaklipomuk) # u# + ú → uwu (e.g. natu + -uk → natuwuk) # ú# + u → o (e.g. yekinú+umu → yekinomu) The above rules use the following abbreviations: V_r - rounded vowels V_c - central unrounded vowels V_u - unrounded vowels V_f - front vowels C - consonant C_alv - alveopalatal consonants C_r - rounded consonants # - morpheme boundary in phonological word

Words

Nouns

There are 18

noun A noun () is a word that generally functions as the name of a specific object or set of objects, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.Example nouns for: * Living creatures (including people, alive, d ...

classes with a closed set of

suffix In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns, adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Suffixes can carry ...

es of the form: noun nucleus + number (-unú). V₁ is the first vowel in a medial vowel cluster, V₂ is the second vowel in a medial vowel cluster.

Pronouns and demonstratives

Pronoun In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (abbreviated ) is a word or a group of words that one may substitute for a noun or noun phrase. Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would not co ...

s and

demonstrative Demonstratives (abbreviated ) are words, such as ''this'' and ''that'', used to indicate which entities are being referred to and to distinguish those entities from others. They are typically deictic; their meaning depending on a particular frame ...

s must agree with the noun class and have singular and plural forms, pronouns also encode proximal and distal information. Possessive pronouns have the form: pronoun + -i + unú (noun number class)

Verbs

Verb structure

Verbs have a complex structure of affixes encoding mood, object, benefactive, and direction which either have their own classes or must agree with the noun class. The structure is: Subject (n-) + Mood (u- 'irrealis', a- 'realis') + Object (unú-) + Verb Nucleus (verb root 1–6, verb stem 1-2)+ Object 2 (-unú) + Benefactive (-m 'benefactive' + -unú/-ag 'here') + Directional (-u 'displaced', -i 'toward speaker', '-uk' permanent). Object 2 and Benefactive may not occur in all verbs.

Verb subject prefixes

Mood marker

All verbs (with the exception of class 6 have a mood marker). The realis mood (mood marker 'a-') concerns events that have happens in the past and present. The irrealis mood (mood marker 'u-') concerns future events and events that did not happen in the past (such as in the case of a mistaken memory). The imperative mood (used for commands) and

interrogative An interrogative clause is a clause whose form is typically associated with question-like meanings. For instance, the English sentence "Is Hannah sick?" has interrogative syntax which distinguishes it from its declarative counterpart "Hannah is ...

mood (used for questions) are formed by clausal transformations.

Verb object suffixes

Verb root classes

Class 8 has a second object while class 4 only has one.

Adjectives

Adjective In linguistics, an adjective (list of glossing abbreviations, abbreviated ) is a word that generally grammatical modifier, modifies a noun or noun phrase or describes its referent. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun. Tra ...

s consist of a root word followed by the appropriate noun-class suffix (see the noun class table).

Adverbs

There are three

adverb An adverb is a word or an expression that generally modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, clause, preposition, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc., answering ...

classes in Bukiyip: 'natimogúk' (all) in the irrealis mood and '-nubu' (completely) and '-gamu' (well) in the realis mood. All adverbs are

inflected In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and defini ...

, and may have free or bound stems depending on which modifier slot they are placed in the clausal, phrase, or sentence syntax.

Counting system

There are two basic numeral roots 'atú-' (one) and 'bia-' (two). These numeral prefixes are added to noun root words and then undergo a morphological process (see the Morphophonemics section) that combines them. For example: atú + -p + utom → atum → otum or bia + -ch + → The numeral root '' (four) is an exception to this assimilation pattern. In addition to the atú- and bia- numeral roots, there is also a stem éné- meaning one, an, or some depending on context.

Phrases

There are 23 phrase formations in Bukiyip.

Verb phrases

1. Modified Verb Phrase: Modifier (class 1-2 adverb) + Head (verb class 1-7) + Modifier (class 3 adverb, adverb phrase) 2. Repeated Verb Phrase: Head (verb class 10, motion verb) + Modifier (class 3 adverb) + Head (verb class 10, '-lto') + Modifier 3. Coordinate Verb Phrase: Head (verb class 1–5, coordinate phrase) + Head (verb class 1–5, modified phrase) + Modifier 4. Motion Verb Phrase: Head (motion verb, motion verb phrase) + Head (verb class 3, coordinate verb phrase) + Modifier (adverb class 3)

Noun phrases

5. Modified Noun Phrase 1: Modifier (demonstrative, numeral phrase, quantitative stem) + Modifier (class 2 adjective, adjective phrase, nominalised clause, limiter phrase) + Possessive (possessive phrase, possessive pronoun) + Head (class 1-15 noun, coordinate noun phrase) 6. Modified Noun Phrase 2: Modifier (noun stem, class 17-18 noun, class 3 locative phrase) + Head (noun) 7. Apposition Noun Phrase: Head (apposition noun phrase, coordinate noun phrase, demonstrative, intensive phrase, class 18 noun, pronoun, temporal stem) + Apposition (clause, nominalised clause, coordinate noun phrase, modified noun phrase, class 17-18 noun, derived noun stem, pronoun, temporal stem) + Identification (pronoun) 8. Coordinate Noun Phrase: Head (apposition noun phrase, modified noun phrase, class 17 noun, pronoun) + Head (apposition noun phrase, modified noun phrase, class 17 noun, pronoun) + Coordinate ('o', 'úli', + a- + -nú, + ú- + -nú)

Modified noun phrases

9. Possessive Phrase: Head (apposition noun phrase, coordinate noun phrase, demonstrative, class 3 locative phrase, modified noun phrase, class 17-18 noun, noun stem) + Possessive (personal pronoun, '-i-') 10. Limiter Phrase: Head (adverb, demonstrative, modified noun phrase, noun stem, pronoun) + Limiter (at- + <únú>, ati) 11. Intensive Phrase: Head (pronoun) + Intensifier ('kénak', 'meho') 12. Instrumental-Benefactor Phrase: Benefactive (umu) + Head (intransitive clause, transitive clause, modified noun phrase) 13. Similarity Phrase: Similarity ('(') + Head (intransitive clause, transitive clause, demonstrative, pronoun, modified noun phrase) + Similarity ('-umu') 14. Accompaniment Phrase: Head (pronoun, modified noun phrase, apposition noun phrase) + Accompaniment ('nagún')

Locative phrase

15. Locative Phrase 1: Locative (locative) + Head (locative clause, locative word, class 2-3 locative phrase 2, modified noun phrase, class 18 noun) + Identifier (class 18 noun) 16. Locative Phrase 2: Head (intransitive clause, transitive clause, locative, noun, pronoun) + Locative ('-umu', '-ahah') 17. Locative Phrase 3: Head (class 2 locative) + Head (class 3 locative)

Temporal phrase

18. Temporal Phrase 1: Head (temporal stem) + Temporal ('-abali') 19. Temporal Phrase 2: Modifier ('húlúkati-mu) + Head (temporal word) 20. Serial Temporal Phrase: Head (temporal word) + Head (temporal word)

Numeral phrase

21. Numeral Phrase: Head (modified noun phrase, numeral stem) + Head (numeral stem) + Head (numeral stem)

Interrogative phrase

22. Interrogative Phrase: Modifier (interrogative word) + Head (class 1-14 noun)

Adjective/adverb phrase

23. Adjective Phrase: Head (adjective stem) + Head (adjective stem) 1-14 noun

References

{{Languages of Papua New Guinea Arapesh languages Languages of Sandaun Province Languages of East Sepik Province Vulnerable languages