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''Brugmansia'' is a
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial n ...
of seven species of flowering plants in the nightshade family
Solanaceae The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of agricultural crops, medicinal plants, spices, weeds, and o ...
. They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common name of angel's trumpets, a name sometimes used for the closely related genus ''
Datura ''Datura'' is a genus of nine species of highly poisonous, vespertine-flowering plants belonging to the nightshade family Solanaceae. They are commonly known as thornapples or jimsonweeds, but are also known as devil's trumpets (not to be con ...
''. ''Brugmansia'' species are amongst the most toxic of
ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that ...
s, containing
tropane alkaloid Tropane alkaloids are a class of bicyclic .2.1alkaloids and secondary metabolites that contain a tropane ring in their chemical structure. Tropane alkaloids occur naturally in many members of the plant family Solanaceae. Certain tropane alkaloid ...
s of the type also responsible for the toxicity and
deliriant Deliriants are a subclass of hallucinogen. The term was coined in the early 1980s to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics and dissociatives such as LSD and ketamine, respectively, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as opposed ...
effects of both jimsonweed and the infamous
deadly nightshade ''Atropa belladonna'', commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, which also includes tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant (aubergine). It is native to Europe, Nort ...
. All seven species are known only in cultivation or as escapees from cultivation, and no wild plants have ever been confirmed. They are therefore listed as
Extinct in the Wild A species that is extinct in the wild (EW) is one that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as known only by living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range due t ...
by the
IUCN Red List The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data Book, founded in 1964, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biol ...
, although they are popular ornamental plants and still exist wild outside their native range as introduced species. It is suspected that their extinction in the wild is due to the extinction of some animal which previously dispersed the seeds, with human cultivation having ensured the genus's continued survival.


Description

left, alt=Antique painting of the red ''Brugmansia sanguinea'', '' Brugmansia sanguinea'' ''Brugmansia'' are large shrubs or small trees, with semi-woody, often many-branched trunks. They can reach heights of . The leaves are alternately arranged along the stems, generally large, long and across, with an entire or coarsely toothed margin, and are often covered with fine hairs. The name "angel's trumpet" refers to the large, pendulous, trumpet-shaped flowers, long and across at the opening. They come in shades of white, yellow, pink, orange, green, or red. Most have a strong, pleasing fragrance that is most noticeable in the evening. Flowers may be single, double, or more.


Taxonomy

Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, t ...
first classified these plants as part of ''Datura'' with his 1753 description of '' "Datura arborea"''. Then in 1805, C. H. Persoon transferred them into a separate genus, ''Brugmansia'', named for Dutch naturalist Sebald Justinus Brugmans. For another 168 years, various authors placed them back and forth between the genera of ''Brugmansia'' and ''Datura'', until in 1973, with his detailed comparison of morphological differences, T.E. Lockwood settled them as separate genera, where they have stayed unchallenged since. Currently, there are seven recognized species: These species are then divided into two natural, genetically isolated groups. ''Brugmansia'' section ''Brugmansia'' (the warm-growing group) includes the species ''aurea'', ''insignis'', ''sauveolens'', and ''versicolor''. ''Brugmansia'' section ''Sphaerocarpium'' (the cold group) includes the species ''arborea'', ''sanguinea'', and ''vulcanicola''. Two of these species were challenged by Lockwood in his 1973 doctoral thesis. First, ''Brugmansia vulcanicola'' was said to be a subspecies of ''B. sanguinea'', but this was refuted by Lockwood's former mentor, R. E. Schultes in 1977. Second, Lockwood proposed that the species ''B. insignis'' was instead a hybrid of the combination (''B. suaveolens'' x ''B. versicolor'') x ''B. suaveolens''. This was later disproved by crossbreeding experiments done by the Preissels, published in 1997.


Distribution and habitat

''Brugmansia'' are native to tropical regions of South America, along the Andes from Venezuela to northern Chile, and also in south-eastern Brazil. They are grown as ornamental container plants worldwide, and have become
naturalized Naturalization (or naturalisation) is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen of a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done automatically by a statute, i.e., without any effort on the part of the i ...
in isolated tropical areas around the globe, including within North America, Africa, Australia, and Asia.


Ecology

Most ''Brugmansia'' are fragrant in the evenings to attract pollinating moths. One species lacking scent, the red-flowered ''
Brugmansia sanguinea ''Brugmansia sanguinea'', the red angel's trumpet, is a species of South American flowering shrub or small tree belonging to the genus Brugmansia in tribe Datureae of subfamily Solanoideae of the nightshade family Solanaceae. It has been cultivat ...
'', is pollinated by long-billed hummingbirds. ''Brugmansia'' have two main stages to their life cycle. In the initial vegetative stage the young seedling grows straight up on usually a single stalk, until it reaches its first main fork at high. It will not flower until after it has reached this fork, and then only on new growth above the fork. Cuttings taken from the lower vegetative region must also grow to a similar height before flowering, but cuttings from the upper flowering region will often flower at a very low height. One interesting example of plant/animal interaction involves the butterfly '' Placidula euryanassa'', which uses '' Brugmansia suaveolens'' as one of its main larval foods. It has been shown that these can sequester the plant's tropane alkaloids and store them through the
pupa A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their ...
l stage on to the adult butterfly, where they are then used as a defense mechanism, making themselves less palatable to
vertebrate Vertebrates () comprise all animal taxon, taxa within the subphylum Vertebrata () (chordates with vertebral column, backbones), including all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the ...
predators. ''Brugmansia'' seed dispersal was probably formerly accomplished by mammalian megafauna, extinct since the
Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( , often referred to as the '' Ice age'') is the geological epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was finally confirmed ...
. ''Brugmansia'' has long been extinct in the wild as their fruits now shrivel on the plants without progeny. They have been maintained in cultivation as a source of psychotropic drugs, following the loss of their evolutionary seed dispersal partner by humans .


Historical uses

''Brugmansia'' are most often grown today as flowering ornamental plants. ''Brugmansia'' contains
deliriant Deliriants are a subclass of hallucinogen. The term was coined in the early 1980s to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics and dissociatives such as LSD and ketamine, respectively, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as opposed ...
hallucinogen Hallucinogens are a large, diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorized ...
ic
tropane alkaloid Tropane alkaloids are a class of bicyclic .2.1alkaloids and secondary metabolites that contain a tropane ring in their chemical structure. Tropane alkaloids occur naturally in many members of the plant family Solanaceae. Certain tropane alkaloid ...
s (
atropine Atropine is a tropane alkaloid and anticholinergic medication used to treat certain types of nerve agent and pesticide poisonings as well as some types of slow heart rate, and to decrease saliva production during surgery. It is typically giv ...
,
scopolamine Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine, or Devil's Breath, is a natural or synthetically produced tropane alkaloid and anticholinergic drug that is formally used as a medication for treating motion sickness and postoperative nausea and vomit ...
, and
hyoscyamine Hyoscyamine (also known as daturine or duboisine) is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid and plant toxin. It is a secondary metabolite found in certain plants of the family Solanaceae, including henbane, mandrake, angel's trumpets, jimson ...
) which cause
delirium Delirium (also known as acute confusional state) is an organically caused decline from a previous baseline of mental function that develops over a short period of time, typically hours to days. Delirium is a syndrome encompassing disturbances ...
and
hallucination A hallucination is a perception in the absence of an external stimulus that has the qualities of a real perception. Hallucinations are vivid, substantial, and are perceived to be located in external objective space. Hallucination is a combinati ...
s. In
modern medicine Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practic ...
, these tropane alkaloids found in ''Brugmansia'' and other related members of Solanaceae have proven medical value for their spasmolytic,
anti-asthmatic Asthma is a long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, c ...
,
anticholinergic Anticholinergics (anticholinergic agents) are substances that block the action of the neurotransmitter called acetylcholine (ACh) at synapses in the central and peripheral nervous system. These agents inhibit the parasympathetic nervous syste ...
, narcotic, and
anesthetic An anesthetic (American English) or anaesthetic (British English; see spelling differences) is a drug used to induce anesthesia ⁠— ⁠in other words, to result in a temporary loss of sensation or awareness. They may be divided into tw ...
properties, although many of these alkaloids, or their equivalents, are now artificially synthesized. ''Brugmansia'' species have also traditionally been used in many
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the souther ...
n indigenous cultures in medical preparations and as an
entheogen Entheogens are psychoactive substances that induce alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior for the purposes of engendering spiritual development or otherwiseRätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclopedia of Psychoact ...
in religious and spiritual ceremonies. Medicinally, they have mostly been used externally as part of a
poultice A poultice, also called a cataplasm, is a soft moist mass, often heated and medicated, that is spread on cloth and placed over the skin to treat an aching, inflamed, or painful part of the body. It can be used on wounds, such as cuts. 'Poultice ...
,
tincture A tincture is typically an extract of plant or animal material dissolved in ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Solvent concentrations of 25–60% are common, but may run as high as 90%.Groot Handboek Geneeskrachtige Planten by Geert Verhelst In chemist ...
, ointment, or where the leaves are directly applied
transdermal Transdermal is a route of administration wherein active ingredients are delivered across the skin for systemic distribution. Examples include transdermal patches used for medicine delivery. The drug is administered in the form of a patch or ointme ...
ly to the skin. Traditional external uses have included the treating of aches and pains,
dermatitis Dermatitis is inflammation of the skin, typically characterized by itchiness, redness and a rash. In cases of short duration, there may be small blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become thickened. The area of skin involved can ...
, orchitis,
arthritis Arthritis is a term often used to mean any disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints. In some ...
,
rheumatism Rheumatism or rheumatic disorders are conditions causing chronic, often intermittent pain affecting the joints or connective tissue. Rheumatism does not designate any specific disorder, but covers at least 200 different conditions, including ar ...
, headaches, infections, and as an
anti-inflammatory Anti-inflammatory is the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation or swelling. Anti-inflammatory drugs, also called anti-inflammatories, make up about half of analgesics. These drugs remedy pain by reducing inflammation as ...
. They have been used internally much more rarely due to the inherent dangers of ingestion. Internal uses, in highly diluted preparations, and often as a portion of a larger mix, have included treatments for stomach and muscle ailments, as a
decongestant A decongestant, or nasal decongestant, is a type of pharmaceutical drug that is used to relieve nasal congestion in the upper respiratory tract. The active ingredient in most decongestants is either pseudoephedrine or phenylephrine (the latter ...
, to induce vomiting, to expel worms and parasites, and as a sedative. Several South American cultures have used ''Brugmansia'' species as a treatment for unruly children, so that they might be admonished directly by their ancestors in the spirit world, and thereby become more compliant. Mixed with maize beer and tobacco leaves, it has been used to drug wives and slaves before they were buried alive with their dead lord. In the Northern Peruvian Andes, shamans (
curandero A ''curandero'' (, healer; f. , also spelled , , f. ) is a traditional native healer or shaman found primarily in Latin America and also in the United States. A curandero is a specialist in traditional medicine whose practice can either contra ...
s) traditionally used ''Brugmansia'' species for initiation, divination, and
black magic Black magic, also known as dark magic, has traditionally referred to the use of supernatural powers or magic for evil and selfish purposes, specifically the seven magical arts prohibited by canon law, as expounded by Johannes Hartlieb in 1 ...
rituals. In some Latin American countries such as Colombia and Peru, members of the genus ''Brugmansia'' are reportedly used by malevolent sorcerers or "bad shamans" in some
ayahuasca AyahuascaPronounced as in the UK and in the US. Also occasionally known in English as ''ayaguasca'' ( Spanish-derived), ''aioasca'' (Brazilian Portuguese-derived), or as ''yagé'', pronounced or . Etymologically, all forms but ''yagé'' desce ...
brews in attempt to take advantage of tourists. The species that are typically used for these purposes include '' Brugmansia suaveolens'' and '' Brugmansia arborea'' among others.


Toxicity

All parts of ''Brugmansia'' are potentially poisonous, with the seeds and leaves being especially dangerous. ''Brugmansia'' are rich in
scopolamine Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine, or Devil's Breath, is a natural or synthetically produced tropane alkaloid and anticholinergic drug that is formally used as a medication for treating motion sickness and postoperative nausea and vomit ...
(hyoscine),
hyoscyamine Hyoscyamine (also known as daturine or duboisine) is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid and plant toxin. It is a secondary metabolite found in certain plants of the family Solanaceae, including henbane, mandrake, angel's trumpets, jimson ...
, and several other tropane alkaloids which can lead to
anticholinergic Anticholinergics (anticholinergic agents) are substances that block the action of the neurotransmitter called acetylcholine (ACh) at synapses in the central and peripheral nervous system. These agents inhibit the parasympathetic nervous syste ...
toxidrome and
delirium Delirium (also known as acute confusional state) is an organically caused decline from a previous baseline of mental function that develops over a short period of time, typically hours to days. Delirium is a syndrome encompassing disturbances ...
. Effects of ingestion can include paralysis of smooth muscles, confusion,
tachycardia Tachycardia, also called tachyarrhythmia, is a heart rate that exceeds the normal resting rate. In general, a resting heart rate over 100 beats per minute is accepted as tachycardia in adults. Heart rates above the resting rate may be normal ( ...
, dry mouth, constipation, tremors, migraine headaches, poor coordination, delusions, visual and auditory hallucinations,
mydriasis Mydriasis is the dilation of the pupil, usually having a non-physiological cause, or sometimes a physiological pupillary response. Non-physiological causes of mydriasis include disease, trauma, or the use of certain types of drugs. Normally, a ...
, rapid onset cycloplegia, and death. The
hallucinogenic Hallucinogens are a large, diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorize ...
effects of ''Brugmansia'' were described in the journal ''Pathology'' as "terrifying rather than pleasurable". The author Christina Pratt, in ''An Encyclopedia of Shamanism'', says that "''Brugmansia'' induces a powerful trance with violent and unpleasant effects, sickening after effects, and at times temporary insanity". These hallucinations are often characterized by complete loss of awareness that one is hallucinating, disconnection from reality (
psychosis Psychosis is a condition of the mind that results in difficulties determining what is real and what is not real. Symptoms may include delusions and hallucinations, among other features. Additional symptoms are incoherent speech and behavior ...
), and
amnesia Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage or disease,Gazzaniga, M., Ivry, R., & Mangun, G. (2009) Cognitive Neuroscience: The biology of the mind. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. but it can also be caused temporarily by the use ...
of the episode, such as one example reported in '' European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience'' of a young man who amputated his own penis and tongue after drinking only one cup of ''
Brugmansia sanguinea ''Brugmansia sanguinea'', the red angel's trumpet, is a species of South American flowering shrub or small tree belonging to the genus Brugmansia in tribe Datureae of subfamily Solanoideae of the nightshade family Solanaceae. It has been cultivat ...
'' tea. In 1994 in Florida, 112 people were admitted to hospitals after ingesting ''Brugmansia'', leading one municipality to prohibit the purchase, sale, or cultivation of ''Brugmansia'' plants. The concentrations of alkaloids in all parts of the plant differ markedly. They even vary with the seasons and the level of hydration, so it is nearly impossible to determine a safe level of alkaloid exposure. In 2022 ''
The BMJ ''The BMJ'' is a weekly peer-reviewed medical trade journal, published by the trade union the British Medical Association (BMA). ''The BMJ'' has editorial freedom from the BMA. It is one of the world's oldest general medical journals. Origina ...
'' reported the following case: A woman in her 50s presented to the emergency department with blurred vision and pupil asymmetry for 3 hours. The right pupil was dilated, while the left was normal. A detailed history revealed that she had been pruning plants in her garden, when the blurred vision started. She did not complain of any other symptom. When all tests proved normal, she was finally asked to provide a photo of her garden. ''Brugmansia suaveolens'' (angel’s trumpet) was identified in the picture. On asking specific history, she reported rubbing her right eye after touching the plant’s leaves and flowers. It shows that ''Brugmansia'' is highly toxic. Even touching the leaves and flowers can transfer sufficient amounts of active principles to the hand.


Cultivation

''Brugmansia'' are easily grown in a moist, fertile, well-drained soil, in sun to part shade, in frost-free climates. They begin to flower in mid to late spring in warm climates and continue into the fall (autumn), often continuing as late as early winter in warm conditions. In cool winters, outdoor plants need protection from frost, but the roots are hardier, and may resprout in late spring. The species from the higher elevations, in ''B''. section ''Sphaerocarpium'', prefer moderate temperatures and cool nights, and may not flower if temperatures are very hot. Most ''Brugmansia'' may be propagated easily by rooting cuttings taken from the end of a branch during the summer. Several hybrids and numerous
cultivar A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture ...
s have been developed for use as ornamental plants. ''B. ''×'' candida'' is a hybrid between ''B. aurea'' and ''B. versicolor''; ''B. ''×'' flava'' is a hybrid between ''B. arborea'' and ''B. sanguinea''; and ''B. ''×'' cubensis'' is a hybrid between ''B. suaveolens'', ''B. versicolor'', and ''B. aurea''. There are cultivars producing double flowers, and some with variegated leaves. The cultivars ''B.'' × ''candida'' '
Grand Marnier Grand Marnier () is a French brand of liqueurs. The brand's best-known product is Grand Marnier Cordon Rouge, an orange-flavored liqueur created in 1880 by Alexandre Marnier-Lapostolle. It is made from a blend of Cognac brandy, distilled essen ...
' and 'Knightii' have gained the
Royal Horticultural Society The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), founded in 1804 as the Horticultural Society of London, is the UK's leading gardening charity. The RHS promotes horticulture through its five gardens at Wisley (Surrey), Hyde Hall (Essex), Harlow Carr (No ...
's
Award of Garden Merit The Award of Garden Merit (AGM) is a long-established annual award for plants by the British Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). It is based on assessment of the plants' performance under UK growing conditions. History The Award of Garden Merit ...
. Image:Angel Trumpets shrub -- Brugmansia suaveolens.jpg, Angel trumpets shrub – ''Brugmansia suaveolens'' Image:Brugmansia (detail).jpg, ''Brugmansia'' hybrid flower Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-KA-02-039, Tibetexpedition, Trichterblume.jpg, ''Brugmansia suaveolens'' Image:Angel Trumpets -- Brugmansia suaveolens.jpg, Angel trumpets – ''Brugmansia suaveolens'' Image:Brugmansia_tree.jpg, ''Brugmansia'' × ''candida'', Mangonui, North Island, New Zealand Image:Brugmansia_vulcanicola.jpg, ''Brugmansia vulcanicola'' flower File:Brugmansia_29.jpg, ''Brugmansia suaveolens'' flower Image:AngelTrumpet_Mounts_Asit.jpg,
Mounts Botanical Garden Mounts Botanical Garden is a botanical garden located in West Palm Beach, Florida. It is Palm Beach County's oldest and largest public garden with over 6,000 species of tropical and subtropical plants from six continents, including plants native ...
, West Palm Beach, Florida Image:Brugmansia_x_Candida.jpg , ''Brugmansia'' x ''candida'', Berkeley, California, USA File:Brugmansia from Nafpaktos, Northern Greece i.jpg, ''Brugmansia'', Nafpaktos, Northern Greece


References


Further reading

*Hay, A., M. Gottschalk & A. Holguín (2012). ''Huanduj: Brugmansia'' English text, many diagrams and illustrations. *Gottschalk, Monika (2000). ''Engelstrompeten'' (German with English translation booklet). BLV Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. *Geit, Lars and Birgitta. ''Änglatrumpeter och spikklubbor'' Swedish text but photo rich. Small coffee-table book.


External links


Brugmansia discussion hobbyist groupDetailed cultural informationLangenbuscher Garten in Remscheid, Germany''Brugmansia'' Vault
Erowid Erowid, also called Erowid Center, is a non-profit educational organization that provides information about psychoactive plants and chemicals. Erowid documents legal and illegal substances, including their intended and adverse effects. Informat ...
{{Taxonbar, from=Q757262 Solanaceae genera Entheogens Deliriants Herbal and fungal hallucinogens Ayahuasca Poisonous plants