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The
Brownian motion
Brownian motion, or pedesis (from grc, πήδησις "leaping"), is the random motion of particles suspended in a medium (a liquid or a gas).
This pattern of motion typically consists of random fluctuations in a particle's position insi ...
models for
financial markets
A financial market is a market in which people trade financial securities and derivatives at low transaction costs. Some of the securities include stocks and bonds, raw materials and precious metals, which are known in the financial markets ...
are based on the work of
Robert C. Merton
Robert Cox Merton (born July 31, 1944) is an American economist, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate, and professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management, known for his pioneering contributions to continuous-time finance, especia ...
and
Paul A. Samuelson
Paul Anthony Samuelson (May 15, 1915 – December 13, 2009) was an American economist who was the first American to win the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. When awarding the prize in 1970, the Swedish Royal Academies stated that he "h ...
, as extensions to the one-period market models of
Harold Markowitz
Harry Max Markowitz (born August 24, 1927) is an American economist who received the 1989 John von Neumann Theory Prize and the 1990 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
Markowitz is a professor of finance at the Rady School of Management ...
and
William F. Sharpe
William Forsyth Sharpe (born June 16, 1934) is an American economist. He is the STANCO 25 Professor of Finance, Emeritus at Stanford University's Graduate School of Business, and the winner of the 1990 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
...
, and are concerned with defining the concepts of financial
assets
In financial accountancy, financial accounting, an asset is any resource owned or controlled by a business or an economic entity. It is anything (tangible or intangible) that can be used to produce positive economic value. Assets represent value ...
and
markets
Market is a term used to describe concepts such as:
* Market (economics), system in which parties engage in transactions according to supply and demand
* Market economy
*Marketplace, a physical marketplace or public market
Geography
*Märket, a ...
,
portfolios,
gain
Gain or GAIN may refer to:
Science and technology
* Gain (electronics), an electronics and signal processing term
* Antenna gain
* Gain (laser), the amplification involved in laser emission
* Gain (projection screens)
* Information gain in de ...
s and
wealth
Wealth is the abundance of Value (economics), valuable financial assets or property, physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for financial transaction, transactions. This includes the core meaning as held in the ...
in terms of continuous-time
stochastic processes
In probability theory and related fields, a stochastic () or random process is a mathematical object usually defined as a family of random variables. Stochastic processes are widely used as mathematical models of systems and phenomena that appe ...
.
Under this model, these assets have continuous prices evolving continuously in time and are driven by Brownian motion processes. This model requires an assumption of perfectly divisible assets and a
frictionless market
Frictionless can refer to:
* Frictionless market
* Frictionless continuant
* Frictionless sharing
* Frictionless plane
The frictionless plane is a concept from the writings of Galileo Galilei. In his 1638 '' The Two New Sciences'', Galileo present ...
(i.e. that no transaction costs occur either for buying or selling). Another assumption is that asset prices have no jumps, that is there are no surprises in the market. This last assumption is removed in
jump diffusion Jump diffusion is a stochastic process that involves jumps and diffusion. It has important applications in magnetic reconnection, coronal mass ejections, condensed matter physics, option pricing, and pattern theory and computational vision.
In p ...
models.
Financial market processes
Consider a financial market consisting of
financial assets, where one of these assets, called a ''
bond
Bond or bonds may refer to:
Common meanings
* Bond (finance), a type of debt security
* Bail bond, a commercial third-party guarantor of surety bonds in the United States
* Chemical bond, the attraction of atoms, ions or molecules to form chemical ...
'' or ''
money market
The money market is a component of the economy that provides short-term funds. The money market deals in short-term loans, generally for a period of a year or less.
As short-term securities became a commodity, the money market became a compon ...
'', is
risk
In simple terms, risk is the possibility of something bad happening. Risk involves uncertainty about the effects/implications of an activity with respect to something that humans value (such as health, well-being, wealth, property or the environme ...
free while the remaining
assets, called ''
stock
In finance, stock (also capital stock) consists of all the shares by which ownership of a corporation or company is divided.Longman Business English Dictionary: "stock - ''especially AmE'' one of the shares into which ownership of a company ...
s'', are risky.
Definition
A ''financial market'' is defined as
that satisfies the following:
# A probability space
.
# A time interval
,
:
\int_^T_, \sum_^N\pi_n(t) _n(t)_+_\mathbf_n(t)_-_r(t)_dt_<_\infty_,_almost_surely,_and
:
\int_^T_\sum_^D, \sum_^N\mathbf_(t)\pi_n(t), ^2_dt_<_\infty_,_almost_surely.
The_''gains_process''_for_this_portfolio_is:
:
G(t)_\triangleq_\int_0^t_\left sum_^N\pi_n(t)\rightleft(r(s)ds_+_dA(s)\right)_+_\int_0^t_\left sum_^N\pi_n(t)\left(b_n(t)_+_\mathbf_n(t)_-_r(t)\right)\rightt_+_\int_^t_\sum_^D\sum_^N\mathbf_(t)\pi_n(t)_dW_d(s)_\quad_0_\leq_t_\leq_T
We_say_that_the_portfolio_is_''
self-financed''_if:
:
G(t)_=_\sum_^N_\pi_n(t)_.
It_turns_out_that_for_a_self-financed_portfolio,_the_appropriate_value_of_
\pi_0_is_determined_from_
\pi_=(\pi_1,_\ldots_\pi_N)__and_therefore_sometimes_
\pi_is_referred_to_as_the_portfolio_process._Also,_
\pi_0_<_0_implies_borrowing_money_from_the_money-market,_while_
\pi_n_<_0_implies_taking_a_
short_position
In finance, being short in an asset means investing in such a way that the investor will profit if the value of the asset falls. This is the opposite of a more conventional "long" position, where the investor will profit if the value of the a ...
_on_the_stock.
The_term_
b_n(t)_+_\mathbf_n(t)_-_r(t)_in_the_SDE_of_
G(t)_is_the_''
risk_premium
A risk premium is a measure of excess return that is required by an individual to compensate being subjected to an increased level of risk. It is used widely in finance and economics, the general definition being the expected risky return less t ...
''_process,_and_it_is_the_compensation_received_in_return_for_investing_in_the_
n-th_stock.
_Motivation
Consider_time_intervals_
0_=_t_0_<_t_1_<_\ldots_<_t_M_=_T_,_and_let_
\nu_n(t_m)__be_the_number_of_shares_of_asset_
n_=_0_\ldots_N_,_held_in_a_portfolio_during_time_interval_at_time_
._To_avoid_the_case_of_insider_trading">_m,t__\;_m_=_0_\ldots_M-1_._To_avoid_the_case_of_insider_trading_(i.e._foreknowledge_of_the_future),_it_is_required_that_
\nu_n(t_m)__is_
\mathcal(t_m)__measurable.
Therefore,_the_incremental_gains_at_each_trading_interval_from_such_a_portfolio_is:
:
_G(0)_=_0,_
:
_G(t_)_-_G(t_m)_=_\sum_^N_\nu_n(t_m)_[Y_n(t_)_-_Y_n(t_m)]_,_\quad_m_=_0_\ldots_M-1,_
and_
G(t_m)_is_the_total_gain_over_time_
[0,t_m],_while_the_total_value_of_the_portfolio_is_
\sum_^N_\nu_n(t_m)S_n(t_m).
Define_
\pi_n(t)_\triangleq_\nu_n(t)_,_let_the_time_partition_go_to_zero,_and_substitute_for_
Y(t)_as_defined_earlier,_to_get_the_corresponding_SDE_for_the_gains_process._Here_
\pi_n(t)__denotes_the_dollar_amount_invested_in_asset_
n__at_time_
t_,_not_the_number_of_shares_held.
_Income_and_wealth_processes
_Definition
Given_a_financial_market_
\mathcal,_then_a_''cumulative_income_process''_
\Gamma(t)_\;_0_\leq_t_\leq_T__is_a_
semimartingale
In probability theory, a real valued stochastic process ''X'' is called a semimartingale if it can be decomposed as the sum of a local martingale and a càdlàg adapted finite-variation process. Semimartingales are "good integrators", forming the l ...
_and_represents_the_income_accumulated_over_time_
,t/math>,_due_to_sources_other_than_the_investments_in_the_N+1_assets_of_the_financial_market.
A_''wealth_process''_X(t)_is_then_defined_as:
:X(t)_\triangleq_G(t)_+_\Gamma(t)_
and_represents_the_total_wealth_of_an_investor_at_time_0_\leq_t_\leq_T._The_portfolio_is_said_to_be_''\Gamma(t)-financed''_if:
:X(t)_=_\sum_^N_\pi_n(t).
The_corresponding_SDE_for_the_wealth_process,_through_appropriate_substitutions,_becomes:
dX(t)_=_d\Gamma(t)_+_X(t)\left (t)dt_+_dA(t)\right_\sum_^N_\left \pi_n(t)_\left(_b_n(t)_+_\delta_n(t)_-_r(t)_\right)_\right+_\sum_^D_\left sum_^N_\pi_n(t)_\sigma_(t)\rightW_d(t).
Note,_that_again_in_this_case,_the_value_of_\pi_0_can_be_determined_from_\pi_n,_\;_n_=_1_\ldots_N.
_Viable_markets
The_standard_theory_of_mathematical_finance_is_restricted_to_viable_financial_markets,_i.e._those_in_which_there_are_no_opportunities_for_arbitrage_
In_economics_and_finance,_arbitrage_(,__)_is_the_practice_of_taking_advantage_of_a_difference_in_prices_in_two_or_more_markets;_striking_a_combination_of_matching_deals_to_capitalise_on_the_difference,_the_profit_being_the_difference_between_the_...
._If_such_opportunities_exists,_it_implies_the_possibility_of_making_an_arbitrarily_large_risk-free_profit.