The brown-mantled tamarin (''Leontocebus fuscicollis''), also known as Spix's saddle-back tamarin, is a

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

saddle-back tamarin The saddle-back tamarins are squirrel-sized New World monkeys from the family Callitrichidae in the genus or subgenus ''Leontocebus''. They were split from the tamarin genus ''Saguinus'' based on genetic data and on the fact that saddle-back ta ...

. This

New World monkey New World monkeys are the five families of primates that are found in the tropical regions of Mexico, Central and South America: Callitrichidae, Cebidae, Aotidae, Pitheciidae, and Atelidae. The five families are ranked together as the Ceboidea ( ...

is found in the

Southern America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the south ...

n countries of

Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...

and

Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...

. This

omnivorous An omnivore () is an animal that has the ability to eat and survive on both plant and animal matter. Obtaining energy and nutrients from plant and animal matter, omnivores digest carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber, and metabolize the nutri ...

member of the

Callitrichidae The Callitrichidae (also called Arctopitheci or Hapalidae) are a family of New World monkeys, including marmosets, tamarins, and lion tamarins. At times, this group of animals has been regarded as a subfamily, called the Callitrichinae, of the fa ...

family is usually found in smaller groups ranging between 4 and 15 individuals. This species communicates vocally and largely rely their

olfactory system The olfactory system, or sense of smell, is the sensory system used for smelling (olfaction). Olfaction is one of the special senses, that have directly associated specific organs. Most mammals and reptiles have a main olfactory system and an ac ...

. The brown-mantled tamarin is considered as a species of

Least Concern A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wild. T ...

by the

International Union for Conservation of Nature The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...

, despite a decreasing population and being threatened by

poaching Poaching has been defined as the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land use rights. Poaching was once performed by impoverished peasants for subsistence purposes and to supplement meager diets. It was set a ...

, habitat loss and capture for the illegal pet trade.

Taxonomy

There are 4 subspecies: *''L. f. avilapiresi'', Avila Pires' saddle-back tamarin *''L. f. fuscicollis'', Spix's saddle-back tamarin *''L. f. mura'',

Mura's saddleback tamarin Mura's saddleback tamarin (''Leontocebus fuscicollis mura'') is a subspecies of monkey that was first seen by scientists in 2007 in the Brazilian state of Amazonas. The monkey, which is mostly gray and brown, weighs , is tall, and has a tail. ...

*''L. f. primitivus'', Lako's saddleback tamarin

Cruz Lima's saddle-back tamarin Cruz Lima's saddle-back tamarin (''Leontocebus cruzlimai'') is a species of saddle-back tamarin, a type of small monkey from South America. Cruz Lima's saddle-back tamarin was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the brown-mantled tamarin ...

Lesson's saddle-back tamarin Lesson's saddle-back tamarin (''Leontocebus fuscus'') is a species of saddle-back tamarin, a type of small monkey from South America. Lesson's saddle-back tamarin was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the brown-mantled tamarin, ''L. fus ...

, Illiger's saddle-back tamarin, the

red-mantled saddle-back tamarin The red-mantled saddle-back tamarin (''Leontocebus lagonotus'') is a species of saddle-back tamarin, a type of small monkey from South America. The red-mantled saddle-back tamarin was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the brown-mantled t ...

, the Andean saddle-back tamarin,

Geoffroy's saddle-back tamarin Geoffroy's saddle-back tamarin (''Leontocebus nigrifrons'') is a species of saddle-back tamarin, a type of small monkey from South America. Geoffroy's saddle-back tamarin was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the brown-mantled tamarin, ...

and

Weddell's saddle-back tamarin Weddell's saddle-back tamarin (''Leontocebus weddelli'') is a species of saddle-back tamarin, a type of small monkey from South America. Weddell's saddle-back tamarin was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the brown-mantled tamarin, ''L. ...

were all formerly considered subspecies of the brown-mantled tamarin.

Habitat

Brown-mantled tamarins occupy an extensive area of northern Amazonia. The brown-mantled tamarin is found within

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...

with their geographic range from

and

. This primate species is found predominantly in the

Andes Mountains The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the List of mountain ranges#Mountain ranges by length, longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range i ...

throughout the

Amazon River Basin The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about , or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries of Bolivi ...

, they tend to inhabit primary and secondary lowland

tropical forest Tropical forests (a.k.a. jungle) are forested landscapes in tropical regions: ''i.e.'' land areas approximately bounded by the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, but possibly affected by other factors such as prevailing winds. Some tropical fores ...

s. The brown-mantled tamarin typically remains at a lower altitude of the canopy than other species of primates. The brown-mantled tamarin is

sympatric In biology, two related species or populations are considered sympatric when they exist in the same geographic area and thus frequently encounter one another. An initially interbreeding population that splits into two or more distinct species sh ...

with the

pygmy marmoset Pygmy marmosets are two species of small New World monkeys in the genus ''Cebuella''. They are native to rainforests of the western Amazon Basin in South America. These primates are notable for being the smallest monkeys in the world, at just ov ...

, sharing the same habitat in South American countries, and will often raid the gum holes of this species. It sometimes associates with the

red-bellied tamarin The white-lipped tamarin (''Saguinus labiatus''), also known as the red-bellied tamarin, is a tamarin which lives in the Amazon area of Brazil and Bolivia. The red belly of these New World monkeys is its most remarkable outward characteristic. ...

Characteristics

The brown-mantled tamarin has an average height between and an average body weight between . As sexual dimorphism is not pronounced in this species females and males do not have many traits that makes them different to one another. Both females and males have long non-prehensile tails which are between long. Brown mantled tamarins usually have a lifetime between 8 to 13 years but some have been reported to live up to 25 years in captivity. They typically have orange-yellow fur with black patches and narrow hands which helps this small statured primate reach into small crevices when

foraging Foraging is searching for wild food resources. It affects an animal's Fitness (biology), fitness because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce. Optimal foraging theory, Foraging theory is a branch of behaviora ...

. This species is diurnal and

arboreal Arboreal locomotion is the Animal locomotion, locomotion of animals in trees. In habitats in which trees are present, animals have evolved to move in them. Some animals may scale trees only occasionally, but others are exclusively arboreal. Th ...

meaning that they spend most of their time within the trees and are most active throughout the day.

Diet

This species is eats both plant and animal matter, feeding on

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...

flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...

nectar Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries or nectarines, either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists ...

eggs Humans and human ancestors have scavenged and eaten animal eggs for millions of years. Humans in Southeast Asia had domesticated chickens and harvested their eggs for food by 1,500 BCE. The most widely consumed eggs are those of fowl, especial ...

, and smaller animals including

snail A snail is, in loose terms, a shelled gastropod. The name is most often applied to land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs. However, the common name ''snail'' is also used for most of the members of the molluscan class Gastro ...

lizard Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia alt ...

tree frogs A tree frog (or treefrog) is any species of frog that spends a major portion of its lifespan in trees, known as an arboreal state. Several Lineage (evolution), lineages of frogs among the Neobatrachia have given rise to treefrogs, although they a ...

and

insect Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs ...

s. The brown-mantled tamarin specifically enjoys

tree sap 01 or '01 may refer to: * The year 2001, or any year ending with 01 * The month of January * 1 (number) Music * 01'' (Richard Müller album), 2001 * ''01'' (Son of Dave album), 2000 * ''01'' (Urban Zakapa album), 2011 * ''O1'' (Hiroyuki Sawa ...

in the late dry season and early wet season. In order to access the plant exudates, they utilize pre-existing holes made by other primates, primarily the

Pygmy marmoset Pygmy marmosets are two species of small New World monkeys in the genus ''Cebuella''. They are native to rainforests of the western Amazon Basin in South America. These primates are notable for being the smallest monkeys in the world, at just ov ...

rather then creating a hole themselves.

Behavior

Social Behavior

Brown-mantled tamarin social groups average 8 individuals and sleep in low lying palms of the

Oenocarpus bataua ''Oenocarpus bataua'', the patawa, sehe, hungurahua (Ecuador) or mingucha, is a palm tree native to the Amazon rainforest. The tree produces edible fruits rich in high-quality oil.Vallejo Rendón, Darío 2002. "Oenocarpus bataua, seje"; ''Colombi ...

tree and tree hollows, relying on concealment as a strategy of predator protection. Their territory may occasionally overlap with other species of callitrichids including the

Goeldi's marmoset The Goeldi's marmoset or Goeldi's monkey (''Callimico goeldii'') is a small, South American New World monkey that lives in the upper Amazon basin region of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. It is the only species classified in the genus ''C ...

and

Moustached tamarin The moustached tamarin (''Saguinus mystax'') is a New World monkey and a species of tamarin. The moustached tamarin is named for the lack of coloring in the facial hair surrounding their mouth, appearing similar to a moustache. As with all New Wo ...

. It is common for this species to defend their territory however not all intergroup encounters are aggressive.

Vocalization

Similar to other species of callitrichids, the brown-mantled tamarin utilizes vocalization to communicate amongst each other, they have many different forms of vocalizations including a soft trill contact call, a long distance loud whistle and an alarm call which all convey a different message, these calls can sound like chirps or whistles. They do not however use their vocalization skill as their main form of communication, the brown-mantled tamarin will sound alarm calls when in proximity of potential danger from intruders or predators, individuals will respond to the alarm calls which aids in determining the location of each group member. Due to the geographic distribution of the brown-mantled tamarin, their territory often overlaps with that of other primate species and it is not uncommon for different species such as the

to respond to their calls, even though every species has a different sounding alarm calls.

Olfactory Communication

This species possess a well developed

olfactory The sense of smell, or olfaction, is the special sense through which smells (or odors) are perceived. The sense of smell has many functions, including detecting desirable foods, hazards, and pheromones, and plays a role in taste. In humans, it ...

communication system with specialized glands in the

anogenital The perineum in humans is the space between the anus and scrotum in the male, or between the anus and the vulva in the female. The perineum is the region of the body between the pubic symphysis (pubic arch) and the coccyx (tail bone), includin ...

suprapubic The hypogastrium (also called the hypogastric region or suprapubic region) is a region of the abdomen located below the umbilical region. Etymology The roots of the word ''hypogastrium'' mean "below the stomach"; the roots of ''suprapubic'' mean ...

, and sternal regions, they can perceive information about species, subspecies, sex, and individual identity in the sender's scent marks as well as females relaying the status of their reproductive condition through their scents.

Olfactory The sense of smell, or olfaction, is the special sense through which smells (or odors) are perceived. The sense of smell has many functions, including detecting desirable foods, hazards, and pheromones, and plays a role in taste. In humans, it ...

communication is substantially different from other forms of communication, scent marks are deposited in the substrate and can be detected long after they were deposited. There are three functional motives for scent marking behavior amongst New World primates which include territorial function, regulation of social and reproductive dominance and mate attraction. The use of scent marking for territorial defense was hypothesized to be one of the main functions within brown-mantled tamarins, as they typically would mark more on the periphery of their area of territory, however spatial patterns of scent marking failed to reveal a consistent pattern and that there is no difference in the pattern of scent marking between exclusive and overlap areas rather that the distribution of scent-marking was correlated with the intensity of home-range use. Although scent marking may not be primarily as a mechanism for defending their territory, it does serve a purpose to neighboring groups and intruders, as the territory of brown-mantled tamarins overlaps the territory of many other primates, scent marking is a strategy used to communicate with other groups to reduce aggressive intergroup encounters. A secondary use of olfactory communication can be found for reproductive functions where females will release certain

pheromone A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavio ...

s within their territory to convey their reproductive status as a way to find a mating partner or to prevent other females within the group from breeding. It has been found that males within the group may deposit his own scent mark over the secretions of females as a strategy to claim the female as his copulation partner. Generally, these glandular secretions will be deposited on branches or trees but can occasionally be deposited on other primates known as allomarking.

Breeding

Groups of brown-mantled tamarins typically involve two or more adult males and a single reproductive female. It is common within this species that the dominant female births twins which are cared for by all group members.

Polyandry Polyandry (; ) is a form of polygamy in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a plural number of "husbands and wives" ...

is more common within groups of brown-mantled tamarins because of the high frequency of twin births making it difficult for the mother to take care of her offspring's at once, as a result,

alloparenting Alloparenting (also referred to as alloparental care) is a term used to classify any form of parental care provided by an individual towards young that aren't its own direct offspring. These are often referred to as "non-descendant" young, even th ...

highly prevails where nonreproductive helpers and polyandrous males aid with infant care. The breeding male typically carries the infants until they are 90 days old, only passing them back to their mother for feeding. The

gestation Gestation is the period of development during the carrying of an embryo, and later fetus, inside viviparous animals (the embryo develops within the parent). It is typical for mammals, but also occurs for some non-mammals. Mammals during pregna ...

period for this species is roughly 150 days and babies are not fully weaned from their mothers until 3–4 months and reach maturity at the age of 2.

Conservation Status

The brown mantled tamarin is listed as

Least-concern species A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wild. T ...