Bradford Lee Gilbert (March 24, 1853 – September 1, 1911) was a nationally active American architect based in
New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
. He is known for designing the Tower Building in 1889, the first steel-framed building anywhere and the first skyscraper in New York City. This technique was soon copied across the United States. He also designed Atlanta's
Cotton States and International Exposition
The Cotton States and International Exposition was a world's fair held in Atlanta, Georgia, United States in 1895. The exposition was designed "to foster trade between southern states and South American nations as well as to show the products an ...
of 1895, the
Flatiron Building
The Flatiron Building, originally the Fuller Building, is a triangular 22-story, steel-framed landmarked building at 175 Fifth Avenue in the eponymous Flatiron District neighborhood of the Boroughs of New York City, borough of Manhattan in New ...
in
Atlanta
Atlanta ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the seat of Fulton County, the most populous county in Georgia, but its territory falls in both Fulton and DeKalb counties. With a population of 498,715 ...
, and many railroad stations.
Background
Bradford was born in
Watertown, New York
Watertown is a city in, and the county seat of, Jefferson County, New York, United States. It is approximately south of the Thousand Islands, along the Black River about east of where it flows into Lake Ontario. The city is bordered by the ...
New York Supreme Court
The Supreme Court of the State of New York is the trial-level court of general jurisdiction in the New York State Unified Court System. (Its Appellate Division is also the highest intermediate appellate court.) It is vested with unlimited civ ...
Great Barrington, Massachusetts
Great Barrington is a town in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. It is part of the Pittsfield, Massachusetts, Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 7,172 at the 2020 census. Both a summer resort and home to Ski Butternut, ...
. Later, he had private tutors at home in
Irvington, New York
Irvington, sometimes known as Irvington-on-Hudson,Staff (ndg"The Irvington Gazette (Irvington-On-Hudson, N.Y.) 1907-1969"Library of Congress is a suburban village in the town of Greenburgh in Westchester County, New York, United States. It is loca ...
to get ready to attend
Yale University
Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the wo ...
, rather than his father's alma mater
Norwich University
Norwich University – The Military College of Vermont is a private senior military college in Northfield, Vermont. It is the oldest private and senior military college in the United States and offers bachelor's and master's degrees on-campus ...
. However, Gilbert decided to forgo college as he was very anxious to learn architecture. He became a student with the architectural firm J. Cleveland Cady in New York City for five years, beginning in 1872.
In 1876, Gilbert was hired as an architect for the
New York, Lake Erie and Western Railroad
The Erie Railroad was a railroad that operated in the northeastern United States, originally connecting New York City — more specifically Jersey City, New Jersey, where Erie's Pavonia Terminal, long demolished, used to stand — with Lake Erie ...
, under engineer
Octave Chanute
Octave Chanute (February 18, 1832 – November 23, 1910) was a French-American civil engineer and aviation pioneer. He provided many budding enthusiasts, including the Wright brothers, with help and advice, and helped to publicize their flying ...
. Through his work with the railroad in the northern and northwestern states, Gilbert earned a reputation for originality. Although his body of work is diverse, he preferred
Romanesque style
Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the 11th century, this later ...
and consistently featured "sinuous, interlaced patterns, virtuoso brickwork and deep red color effects".
By 1890, Gilbert opened a firm in his name at 1 Broadway in New York City, initially specializing in railroad and public buildings. He said, "It certainly costs no more, often not such much, to design a building that is architecturally correct, of good, quiet contour, the whole effect gained by constructional outlines, in place of the fancy 'ginger-bread' work to often adopted; and with the interior arrangements designed to meet every requirement."
Throughout his career, Gilbert also designed apartment buildings, churches, clubs, exhibition buildings, hospitals, hotels, houses, and office buildings. Gilbert did not just design buildings, he also managed the projects and visited the construction sites; this was documented in newspapers articles announcing his arrival in town to check on the progress of the projects.
This attention to detail may have paid off as many of his other projects steamed from his railroad connections, including designing residences for William H. Baldwin Jr. who was president of the
Long Island Railroad
The Long Island Rail Road , often abbreviated as the LIRR, is a commuter rail system in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of New York, stretching from Manhattan to the eastern tip of Suffolk County on Long Island. With an average week ...
,
Alfred Skitt
Alfred may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
*'' Alfred J. Kwak'', Dutch-German-Japanese anime television series
* ''Alfred'' (Arne opera), a 1740 masque by Thomas Arne
* ''Alfred'' (Dvořák), an 1870 opera by AntonÃn Dvořák
*"Alfred (Interl ...
father
A father is the male parent of a child. Besides the paternal bonds of a father to his children, the father may have a parental, legal, and social relationship with the child that carries with it certain rights and obligations. An adoptive fathe ...
built the
Macon and Brunswick Railroad
The Macon and Brunswick Railroad ran from Macon, Georgia to Brunswick, Georgia. Its construction was interrupted by the American Civil War, and initially only ran from Macon to Cochran, Georgia. The track gauge, gauge line was completed and exte ...
, Benjamin A. Kimball who was president of the Concord and Montreal Railroad Company, and
William Greene Raoul
William is a male given name of Germanic origin.Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 276. It became very popular in the English language after the Norman conquest of Eng ...
president of the
Atlantic and Birmingham Railway
The Waycross Air Line Railroad, chartered in 1887, was an air-line railroad in Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia. It began operations between Waycross, Georgia, Waycross and Sessoms, Georgia, Sessoms in 1890. In 1901, the railroad had extended as ...
, the
Central Railroad and Banking Company of Georgia
The Central of Georgia Railway started as the Central Rail Road and Canal Company in 1833. As a way to better attract investment capital, the railroad changed its name to Central Rail Road and Banking Company of Georgia. This railroad was cons ...
New York, Lake Erie & Western
The Erie Railroad was a railroad that operated in the northeastern United States, originally connecting New York City — more specifically Jersey City, New Jersey, where Erie's Pavonia Terminal, long demolished, used to stand — with Lake Erie ...
Railroad, Gilbert designed many railroad stations and related buildings. Through his private practice, his railroad clients included the
Atlantic Coast Line Railroad
The Atlantic Coast Line Railroad was a United States Class I railroad formed in 1900, though predecessor railroads had used the ACL brand since 1871. In 1967 it merged with long-time rival Seaboard Air Line Railroad to form the Seaboard Coast L ...
;
Boston & Maine Railroad
The Boston and Maine Railroad was a U.S. Class I railroad in northern New England. Originally chartered in 1835, it became part of what was the Pan Am Railways network in 1983 (most of which was purchased by CSX in 2022).
At the end of 1970, B ...
;
Central Railroad of New Jersey
The Central Railroad of New Jersey, also known as the Jersey Central or Jersey Central Lines , was a Class I railroad with origins in the 1830s. It was absorbed into Conrail in April 1976 along with several other prominent bankrupt railroads of ...
;
Concord and Montreal Railroad
The Concord and Montreal Railroad was a railroad incorporated in 1889 out of a merger between the Boston, Concord and Montreal Railroad and the Concord Railroad.
Ownership
The Boston, Concord and Montreal had previously become the Northern Di ...
; the
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad
The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad (also known as the DL&W or Lackawanna Railroad) was a U.S. Class 1 railroad that connected Buffalo, New York, and Hoboken, New Jersey (and by ferry with New York City), a distance of . Incorporated in ...
Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad
The Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad at its height provided passenger and freight railroad services between Cincinnati, Ohio, and the Straits of Mackinac in Michigan, USA. The company was formed on January 18, 1854.
Beginnings
After grappl ...
;
Illinois Central Railroad
The Illinois Central Railroad , sometimes called the Main Line of Mid-America, was a railroad in the Central United States, with its primary routes connecting Chicago, Illinois, with New Orleans, Louisiana, and Mobile, Alabama. A line also co ...
Michigan Central Railroad
The Michigan Central Railroad (reporting mark MC) was originally incorporated in 1846 to establish rail service between Detroit, Michigan, and St. Joseph, Michigan. The railroad later operated in the states of Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois in ...
New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad
The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad , commonly known as The Consolidated, or simply as the New Haven, was a railroad that operated in the New England region of the United States from 1872 to December 31, 1968. Founded by the merger of ...
;
Norfolk and Virginia Beach Railroad
Norfolk () is a ceremonial county, ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in East Anglia in England. It borders Lincolnshire to the north-west, Cambridgeshire to the west and south-west, and Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern bounda ...
;
Northern Pacific Railway
The Northern Pacific Railway was a transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest. It was approved by Congress in 1864 and given nearly of land grants, whic ...
;
Old Colony Railroad
The Old Colony Railroad (OC) was a major railroad system, mainly covering southeastern Massachusetts and parts of Rhode Island, which operated from 1845 to 1893. Old Colony trains ran from Boston to points such as Plymouth, Fall River, ...
.
Gilbert designed the Illinois Central Terminus at 12th Street in Chicago—it was constructed in nine months for the 1893 for the
World's Columbian Exposition
The World's Columbian Exposition (also known as the Chicago World's Fair) was a world's fair held in Chicago
(''City in a Garden''); I Will
, image_map =
, map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago
, coordi ...
. The location and use of the building created certain challenges given the brief that all fair buildings have impact and beauty; Gilbert's solution was to increase the size of the station and give it strong Romanesque details, as "the first impression gained of the building by the general public would be regarding its general contour and 'massing' as well as the outline skylines". In other words, it needed to be impressive at a distance. His design included a ten-story office building, with lobby and offices connected via a
pneumatic tube
Pneumatic tubes (or capsule pipelines, also known as pneumatic tube transport or PTT) are systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks of tubes by compressed air or by partial vacuum. They are used for transporting solid objects, a ...
service. The first three stories were built from dark speckled granite, with buff brick for the upper levels. The roof was dark glazed Spanish tiles, along with a coppery dome. Gilbert was also instructed to make the building fireproof. He achieved this in part by using the building's adjacent tower as a series of fire-proof vaults. The 15-story tower was also a functional clock tower. The cost of this project was over a million dollars, including the passenger station, waiting rooms, restaurant, office building, and a train shed that covered eight tracks. The waiting room was the largest in the world, at and high. This elaborate structure remained in use until it was demolished in 1974. It was called "the gateway to the city."
Gilbert was also the architect for the 1898 remodel of New York City's
Grand Central Terminal
Grand Central Terminal (GCT; also referred to as Grand Central Station or simply as Grand Central) is a commuter rail terminal located at 42nd Street and Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Grand Central is the southern terminus ...
—a project started in 1892 where "no expense is to be spared in making the building attractive". The actual cost was around $175,000. Gilbert designed the ten-story building in the
Romanesque style
Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the 11th century, this later ...
. The front of the building had ornamental bronze panels and bay windows on the second story. The lower level was granite, with
Indiana Limestone
Indiana limestone — also known as Bedford limestone in the building trade — has long been an economically important building material, particularly for monumental public structures. Indiana limestone is a more common term for Salem Limestone, ...
on top. Inside, there were tiled floors and deeply paneled ceilings, as well as
pneumatic tube
Pneumatic tubes (or capsule pipelines, also known as pneumatic tube transport or PTT) are systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks of tubes by compressed air or by partial vacuum. They are used for transporting solid objects, a ...
s to connect the lobby to the offices. This building was replaced by the current
Grand Central Station
Grand Central Terminal (GCT; also referred to as Grand Central Station or simply as Grand Central) is a commuter rail terminal located at 42nd Street and Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Grand Central is the southern terminus ...
in 1913.
Whether designing a large railroad station for New York City or a small station for a Mexican village, Gilbert believed the structure should be comfortable, functional, and aesthetically pleasing to be an asset to its community. In ''Engineering Magazine,'' Gilbert wrote, "No excuse should exempt a railroad company from being amenable to 'local pride.'" He also criticized designing public buildings in Queen Anne or other overly decorative styles as being both expensive to construct and to maintain.
World's Columbian Exposition
In 1893, Gilbert designed an exhibition building for the
World's Columbian Exposition
The World's Columbian Exposition (also known as the Chicago World's Fair) was a world's fair held in Chicago
(''City in a Garden''); I Will
, image_map =
, map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago
, coordi ...
in Chicago for his clients the
New York Central and Hudson River Railroad
The New York Central Railroad was a railroad primarily operating in the Great Lakes and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The railroad primarily connected greater New York and Boston in the east with Chicago and St. Louis in the Midw ...
along with The Wagner Palace Car Co. The building contained wings on either side for railroad engines; inside was an exhibit showing photographs and sketches of Gilbert's work on railroad station architecture. The Exposition's board of directors gave Gilbert a gold medal "for a new type of American architecture". In 1895, the exhibit illustrations were published by ''Railway Gazette'' as a book, ''Sketch Portfolio of Railroad Stations and Kindred Structures''. Gilbert noted that railroad buildings had been overlooked in the past, but were an excellent place "to illustrate the modern architecture".
Mason Stables
Edmund Coffin Jr., a prominent real estate investor and lawyer in New York City, hired Gilbert to design the Mason Stables. This project took three years to construct and was divided into two phases, 1881–1882 and 1883–1894. When completed, the Mason Stables were one of the most extensive livery stables in New York City. The five-story stables included 158 stalls and room for more than 300 carriages. Primarily
Romanesque Revival
Romanesque Revival (or Neo-Romanesque) is a style of building employed beginning in the mid-19th century inspired by the 11th- and 12th-century Romanesque architecture. Unlike the historic Romanesque style, Romanesque Revival buildings tended to ...
in style, the building was decorated with some
Celtic
Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to:
Language and ethnicity
*pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia
**Celts (modern)
*Celtic languages
**Proto-Celtic language
* Celtic music
*Celtic nations
Sports Fo ...
-style ornaments, repeating patterns in variegated orange-yellow and orange-red brick, and rows of repeating slender windows. One modern writer says, "The stables were nearly abstract, a field of dreams in orange, red, and yellow masonry." The
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) is the New York City agency charged with administering the city's Landmarks Preservation Law. The LPC is responsible for protecting New York City's architecturally, historically, and cu ...
says, "Color and texture, rather than ornament, were skillfully used to give the structure its simple, yet monumental character."
Another unique aspect of the Mason Stables was its layout, as the stables wrapped around other buildings, resulting in three entrances—76th Street, 77th Street, and Amsterdam. Two of the entrances featured step-gables, a characteristic of Dutch Renaissance Revival style that Gilbert used with other public buildings in New York City as a nod to the city's origins as
New Netherland
New Netherland ( nl, Nieuw Nederland; la, Novum Belgium or ) was a 17th-century colonial province of the Dutch Republic that was located on the East Coast of the United States, east coast of what is now the United States. The claimed territor ...
. In 1912, the stables were remodeled into a car park and were renamed the Dakota Stables (not to be confused with a 19th-century facility with that name), and the Pyramid Garage in the 1950s. Over the years, the building lost many of its period details; it was demolished in 2011.
YMCA
Gilbert designed a Queen Anne style building for the YMCA in the
Bowery
The Bowery () is a street and neighborhood in Lower Manhattan in New York City. The street runs from Chatham Square at Park Row, Worth Street, and Mott Street in the south to Cooper Square at 4th Street in the north.Jackson, Kenneth L. "B ...
. Known locally as The Bunker, the building was constructed in 1884. This was the first YMCA in New York City. It was converted into residences in 1932 and survives today as a
New York City Landmark
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) is the New York City agency charged with administering the city's Landmarks Preservation Law. The LPC is responsible for protecting New York City's architecturally, historically, and cu ...
.
In June 1886, Gilbert was hired to design a building for the
Harlem
Harlem is a neighborhood in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It is bounded roughly by the Hudson River on the west; the Harlem River and 155th Street (Manhattan), 155th Street on the north; Fifth Avenue on the east; and 110th Street (Manhattan), ...
Branch of the
YMCA
YMCA, sometimes regionally called the Y, is a worldwide youth organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, with more than 64 million beneficiaries in 120 countries. It was founded on 6 June 1844 by George Williams in London, originally ...
. The building was located between 5th and 6th Avenues on the north side of 125th Street. It was brownstone on the lower levels and brick and terra cotta on the upper levels, with step-gables in the Dutch Renaissance Revival style at the 125th Street entrance. The $65,000 building included a gymnasium, a swimming pool, a bowling alley, five classrooms, a library, a parlor, a reception room, a reading room, and an auditorium that seated 800 people.
Tower Building
John Noble Sterns, a supporter of the Cremorne Mission where Gilbert was a trustee, hired Gilbert in 1888 to design an eleven-story office building in New York City. For such a tall building, traditional construction methods required very thick walls that would have dominated the lot that was just wide. Calling upon his railroad background, Gilbert thought of turning a railroad bridge on end, with iron girders to support the floors and external walls. This innovation of " skeleton construction" with "steel-framed curtain walls" allowed him to construct a skyscraper without having thick load-bearing walls. Another benefit of this construction technique was that it was fireproof.
To work around local building ordinances, Gilbert constructed a foundation that was four stories or tall, essentially the height of the adjacent buildings. This foundation was constructed of iron and Little Falls stone. Next, came ten stories constructed in Philadelphia and Tiffany brick, with an octagonal roof covered in Spanish tiles. The brickwork was colorful, and there was Celtic ornamentation similar to that of Mason Stables.
Opening in 1889, the Tower Building is considered New York City's first skyscraper and the first curtain-wall building in the world. It was initially greeted with great skepticism, with members of the public predicting it would blow over. Some people walked around the block rather than walk by it. Some engineers declared it "unsafe and impracticable". To assure the public of its safety, Gilbert moved his offices to its top floor and remained there until he stopped practicing. He also scaled the building in the middle of an 1889 hurricane to prove that the building was not vibrating with a
plumb line
A plumb bob, plumb bob level, or plummet, is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the bottom, suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb-line. It is a precursor to the spirit level and used to establish a vertic ...
. In 1889, ''Engineering News'' called it "a most skillful solution of an exceedingly difficult problem". ''Kobble's New York and Environs'' wrote, "The Tower Building, of No. 50 Broadway, with its fifteen stories, is a remarkable example of a clever utilization of a narrow plot of ground."
The Tower Building cost $250,000 to build. This was quite a bargain given that it was expected to earn $210,000 a year in rent, after taxes and upkeep. A building with traditional construction on the same lot would have only netted $30,000 a year in rent, due to the height limit of ten stories and thick walls reducing square footage. Because Gilbert had devised a way to double income from property, '' The Philadelphia Inquire''r noted that "the old Knickerbockers who own real estate on Broadway and other gilt-edge thoroughfares in the lower part of New York have a new god in the person of Bradford L. Gilbert." The building was razed in 1914 to make way for a taller structure.
Fire Engine Company No. 258, Hook and Ladder Company No. 115
During his career, Gilbert designed just one firehouse—for Engine Company No. 1 and Hook & Ladder Company No. 1 in
Long Island City
Long Island City (LIC) is a residential and commercial neighborhood on the extreme western tip of Queens, a borough in New York City. It is bordered by Astoria to the north; the East River to the west; New Calvary Cemetery in Sunnyside to the ...
. Established in 1891, this company was the first professional firefighters in Queens. However, the first base of operation for this ladder company was a modest wood-frame shed. The department merged with that of New York City in 1898, and its name changed to Fire Engine Company No. 258 and Ladder Company No.115 in 1904.
Constructed between 1902 and 1904, Gilbert's granite building with 4 1/2 stories not only improved the working condition of the firefighters but also reflects the importance of this paid crew who fought fires at the
Standard Oil
Standard Oil Company, Inc., was an American oil production, transportation, refining, and marketing company that operated from 1870 to 1911. At its height, Standard Oil was the largest petroleum company in the world, and its success made its co-f ...
refinery, row-frames, schools, tenements and factories such as the
Pratt & Lambert Pratt & Lambert is a brand of architectural and industrial paint founded in 1849. It has been owned by Sherwin-Williams since 1995.
The Pratt & Lambert company started in Buffalo, New York in 1849 as a maker of a drying agent for linse ...
varnish factory. New York City's Historic Districts Council says, "This building was one of the more ambitious firehouse projects undertaken by the department due to its size and level of architectural detail." Even the selection of the renowned Gilbert, rather than the city's usual firehouse architects, was a statement.
Calling on the origins of New York as
New Netherland
New Netherland ( nl, Nieuw Nederland; la, Novum Belgium or ) was a 17th-century colonial province of the Dutch Republic that was located on the East Coast of the United States, east coast of what is now the United States. The claimed territor ...
, Gilbert's designed the firehouse in Dutch Renaissance Revival style, with oversized limestone trim to offset the darker granite background. Gilbert had also used Dutch Renaissance Revival for other buildings in New York City, including the Harlem Branch YMCA building and the Samuel R. Smith Infirmary and Hospital in Staten Island. The fire house's site cost $20,000; the building was $60,000.
The firehouse is still in use and is listed as a NYC Individual Landmark.
Southern Projects
Virginia projects
In 1888, Gilbert designed the Virginia Beach Hotel, with its attached Terminal Station, for the
Norfolk and Virginia Beach Railroad
Norfolk () is a ceremonial county, ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in East Anglia in England. It borders Lincolnshire to the north-west, Cambridgeshire to the west and south-west, and Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern bounda ...
in
Virginia Beach, Virginia
Virginia Beach is an independent city located on the southeastern coast of the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. The population was 459,470 at the 2020 census. Although mostly suburban in character, it is the most populous city ...
. Later called the Princess Anne Hotel, this marked the beginnings of the beach resort, as well as
Norfolk Southern Railroad
The Norfolk Southern Railway is a Class I freight railroad in the United States formed in 1982 with the merger of Norfolk and Western Railway and Southern Railway. With headquarters in Atlanta, the company operates 19,420 route miles (31, ...
.
In 1895, Gilbert designed the Mary F. Ballentine Home for the Aged at 927 Park Ave. in Norfolk, Virginia, for Thomas R. Ballentine. This facility was named after Ballentine's late wife as it was originally her idea. The Ballentine Home was intended to provide a non-institutional, home-like environment for elderly local women, "more specifically gentle folk of irreproachable family." Ballentine endowed the home when he died and it remained in Gilbert's building until new construction at a different location in 1952.
W.G. Raoul House
In 1891, wealthy railroad executive
William Greene Raoul
William is a male given name of Germanic origin.Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 276. It became very popular in the English language after the Norman conquest of Eng ...
hired Gilbert to design his residence on
Peachtree Street
Peachtree Street is one of several major streets running through the city of Atlanta. Beginning at Five Points (Atlanta), Five Points in downtown Atlanta, it runs North through Midtown Atlanta, Midtown; a few blocks after entering into Buckhead ...
in
Atlanta, Georgia
Atlanta ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the seat of Fulton County, the most populous county in Georgia, but its territory falls in both Fulton and DeKalb counties. With a population of 498,715 ...
. The ornate, gabled house and its estate included a wine cellar, a cottage for servants, a stable, and the first tennis court in Atlanta. This house was home to the Raoul family through 1914. During the 1940s, the
Red Cross
The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is a Humanitarianism, humanitarian movement with approximately 97 million Volunteering, volunteers, members and staff worldwide. It was founded to protect human life and health, to ensure re ...
acquired the property and used the house as a blood donation and bandage rolling center; around 1950 the Red Cross built a modern building on the property, directly in the front of the Raoul house. The house was also surrounded by the Cabana Motor Hotel and the Biltmore Hotel, losing its original context on a street of mansions. The Raoul House was placed on the
National Register of Historic Places
The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) is the United States federal government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects deemed worthy of preservation for their historical significance or "great artistic v ...
in the 1980s but burned in 1991 while it was leased to a nightclub.
Cotton States and International Exposition
In 1895, Gilbert was the supervising architect for the
Cotton States and International Exposition
The Cotton States and International Exposition was a world's fair held in Atlanta, Georgia, United States in 1895. The exposition was designed "to foster trade between southern states and South American nations as well as to show the products an ...
in
Atlanta
Atlanta ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the seat of Fulton County, the most populous county in Georgia, but its territory falls in both Fulton and DeKalb counties. With a population of 498,715 ...
. For this world's fair event, he designed many structures, including the Administration Building with Main Entrance and Exits, the Agricultural Building, the Auditorium, the Chime Tower and Band Stand, the Electricity Building, the Fire Building, the Machinery Hall, the Manufacturers & Liberal Arts Building, the Minerals and Forestry Building, the Negro Building, the Semi-Circular Entrance, and Exit Gateway, the Transportation Building, and the United States Government Building.
There was a logic to his designs; for example, the Minerals and Forestry Building was constructed of natural Southern woods. At his suggestion, Bradford's designs were in the Romanesque style as this resulted in cost-effective temporary structures with a simple outline. Romanesque style was also a good way for Atlanta "to be seen as ''au courant'' with America's commercial trends." In addition to designing for the Exposition, he also created vendor buildings for the Southern Railway Company and the
Atlantic Coast Line Railroad
The Atlantic Coast Line Railroad was a United States Class I railroad formed in 1900, though predecessor railroads had used the ACL brand since 1871. In 1967 it merged with long-time rival Seaboard Air Line Railroad to form the Seaboard Coast L ...
.
''
The Atlanta Constitution
''The Atlanta Journal-Constitution'' is the only major daily newspaper in the metropolitan area of Atlanta, Georgia. It is the flagship publication of Cox Enterprises. The ''Atlanta Journal-Constitution'' is the result of the merger between ...
'' wrote, "The design for the Administration Building and Gateway is one of the handsomest of the entire Exhibition. The design…is a composite design of old baronial castles…these castellated turrets, those embattled ramparts, those ancient moats, the old swinging drawbridge, will prove a source of keen enjoyment and profit." Gilbert received a gold medal from the Exposition Directors for "the designing and building all of the fifteen principal structures within the limit of time and appropriation."
Albemarle Park and Manor Inn
After a family vacation in 1896,
William Greene Raoul
William is a male given name of Germanic origin.Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 276. It became very popular in the English language after the Norman conquest of Eng ...
decided to make
Asheville, North Carolina
Asheville ( ) is a city in, and the county seat of, Buncombe County, North Carolina. Located at the confluence of the French Broad and Swannanoa rivers, it is the largest city in Western North Carolina, and the state's 11th-most populous cit ...
his family's summer home. Getting away from the heat of a
Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
summer may have been one goal. Still, his son Thomas contracted
tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by '' Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in ...
in 1897, and the mountain air of Asheville was believed to be a cure. Raoul and his son hired Gilbert to design Albemarle Park, a park-like resort development on just outside of Asheville. Gilbert began with a small hotel called Manor Inn, five cottages and the Lodge (or Gatehouse) where the Raoul family lived at first. In 1902, he added three new houses, a wing to the Manor Inn, doubled the size of the dining room and added a stage for musicians. Known cottages credited to Gilbert include Clover, Columbus, Hollyhock, Marigold, and Milfoil.
To suit the mountain setting, Gilbert created a "resort with an English inn atmosphere," with grounds designed by landscape architect Samuel Parsons, Jr. This translated to a hybrid of
Tudor Revival
Tudor Revival architecture (also known as mock Tudor in the UK) first manifested itself in domestic architecture in the United Kingdom in the latter half of the 19th century. Based on revival of aspects that were perceived as Tudor architecture ...
,
Colonial Revival
The Colonial Revival architectural style seeks to revive elements of American colonial architecture.
The beginnings of the Colonial Revival style are often attributed to the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, which reawakened Americans to the archi ...
,
Dutch Colonial Revival
Dutch Colonial is a style of domestic architecture, primarily characterized by gambrel roofs having curved eaves along the length of the house. Modern versions built in the early 20th century are more accurately referred to as "Dutch Colonial Re ...
, and Shingle architectural styles, with exteriors that featured shingles,
roughcast
Roughcast or pebbledash is a coarse plaster surface used on outside walls that consists of lime and sometimes cement mixed with sand, small gravel and often pebbles or shells. The materials are mixed into a slurry and are then thrown at the wor ...
plaster, and
timber framing
Timber framing (german: Holzfachwerk) and "post-and-beam" construction are traditional methods of building with heavy timbers, creating structures using squared-off and carefully fitted and joined timbers with joints secured by large wooden ...
. Built between 1898 and 1920, Albemarle Park would eventually consist of 42 structures—some designed by other architects—becoming one of America's first planned residential parks. Albemarle Park is now a National Register Historic District. The National Register says, "The Manor and Cottages compose a picturesque small historic district, evocative of Asheville's dramatic turn-of-the-century resort town boom era."
Rufus Bullock
Rufus Brown Bullock (March 28, 1834 – April 27, 1907) was a Republican Party politician and businessman in Georgia. During the Reconstruction Era he served as the state's governor and called for equal economic opportunity and political rights f ...
, a former Georgia governor. Located at the junction of Broad and Peachtree Streets, this triangular-shaped building with eleven stories was the second skyscraper in Atlanta. Its style was Neo-Classical and Neo-Renaissance, but the shape was modern. At a cost of some $400,000, the building included three electric elevators, 200 rooms, and electric lighting.
The Within a year, the building's tenants included National Cash Register Co., Otis Bros. Co. (elevators), Rand McNally Co.,
Mutual Life Insurance Co
Mutual may refer to:
*Mutual organization, where as customers derive a right to profits and votes
*Mutual information, the intersection of multiple information sets
*Mutual insurance, where policyholders have certain "ownership" rights in the orga ...
.,
Southern Bell
Southern Bell Telephone and Telegraph Company was once the regional Bell Operating Company serving the states of Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, and South Carolina prior to the breakup of AT&T. It also covered the states of Alabama, Kentucky ...
and many others along with its owners and the
Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
The Ku Klux Klan (), commonly shortened to the KKK or the Klan, is an American white supremacist, right-wing terrorist, and hate group whose primary targets are African Americans, Jews, Latinos, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Catho ...
. Known as the
Flatiron Building
The Flatiron Building, originally the Fuller Building, is a triangular 22-story, steel-framed landmarked building at 175 Fifth Avenue in the eponymous Flatiron District neighborhood of the Boroughs of New York City, borough of Manhattan in New ...
since 1916 because of its shape, this is the oldest remaining steel-framed skyscraper in Atlanta and one of the few non-railroad buildings by Gilbert that survive today. Dr. Elizabeth Lyon says, "The building plays an important role in its urban setting by establishing a sense of dignity and scale and helping to create a visually interesting sequence of spaces and styles in the central business area of the city."
South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition
Gilbert was the supervising architect for the South Carolina Inter-State and West Indian Exposition in 1901. Remarkably, he was responsible for all aspects of this Charleston world's fair event, from the buildingsMaria McAuley.jpg to the grounds to its infrastructure, including roads, water, sewage, and electricity. Gilbert designed twenty large buildings, including the long Cotton Palace with and its tall dome, and the Administration Building, Agriculture Palace, Art Palace, Auditorium, and the Sunken Garden & Conning Tower Sculpture. The main buildings, with their domes, arcades, finials, and brackets, were all painted in off-white, giving the Exposition its name the Ivory City—a play on the White City of the
World's Columbian Exposition
The World's Columbian Exposition (also known as the Chicago World's Fair) was a world's fair held in Chicago
(''City in a Garden''); I Will
, image_map =
, map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago
, coordi ...
of 1893
Gilbert's instructions for this fair were to create a "Southern motif" which seems noticeably lacking in the Italian and Spanish-Revival style he used. However, Gilbert gave the exposition a more romantic look than the Atlanta exposition, while also modernizing it with the Mediterranean-style that was, during the 1890s and early 20th-century, in fashion for commercial and residential buildings Rather than Southern plantation architecture, it seems that Gilbert was influenced by the fair's goal of reminding commercial interests of the once lucrative trade route between the
West Indies
The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greater A ...
and the port of Charleston. Thus, architect Bruce Harvey concludes "The architecture at Charleston's exposition both reflected and promoted this conscious hope for the future." The architectural critic Montgomery Schuyler wrote, "At Chicago, they called the style Columbian; at Buffalo, they called it Pan-American…in Charleston—the Spanish Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century."
Gilbert's layout divided the fair into sections, suggesting that he studied that of the widely successful
Columbian Exposition
The World's Columbian Exposition (also known as the Chicago World's Fair) was a world's fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World in 1492. The centerpiece of the Fair, hel ...
. His idea was to split the grounds into areas for the natural and artificial, connected by a "narrow neck" that included the Administration Building. Like
Frederick Law Olmsted
Frederick Law Olmsted (April 26, 1822August 28, 1903) was an American landscape architect, journalist, social critic, and public administrator. He is considered to be the father of landscape architecture in the USA. Olmsted was famous for co- ...
in Chicago, Gilbert used the natural setting—in this case, live oaks and magnolias along the Ashley River—to give structure to his Natural Section that included the Art, Machinery, Negro, various states, Transportation, and Women's Buildings. Gilbert wrote that the Natural section "will form a natural park of endless beauty of vista and landscape effect naturalistic ic.€¦a winding path of 100 feet in width will be carried underneath the overspreading live oaks along the edge of the embankment."
The artificial or Art Section was formal with architecturally similar buildings: the Palaces of Agriculture, Commerce, and Cotton. Gilbert sited this section over the former Washington Race Course, a flat area that was already treeless, allowing him to create "complex geometrical design" for the Court of Palaces which was surrounded with a sunken garden and connected by a colonnade. After the exposition, the majority of its temporary buildings were razed; the bandstand is the only structure from the event that survives.
However, Gilbert and the expedition quarreled over his compensation for work. In May 1902, Gilbert appeared in court for his lawsuit against the exposition for $16,422.80, the balance due on his $34,422.30 invoice. In return, the exposition sued Gilbert for $51,000 in damages and loss of business due to his failure to complete the construction of all of the buildings by the opening date.
Atlanta Railroad Station
In 1902, Gilbert was paid $1,000 by Atlanta to draw plans for a new railroad station.
Henry Janeway Hardenbergh
Henry Janeway Hardenbergh (February 6, 1847 – March 13, 1918) was an American architect, best known for his hotels and apartment buildings, and as a "master of a new building form — the skyscraper."
Life and career
Hardenbergh was born in ...
, also an architect from New York City, collaborated on the redesign and expansion of the Windsor Hotel in Montreal, Canada. Construction began in the spring of 1906 to create one of the largest hotels in North America of its day. Built of a steel frame and stone, the hotel was increased to a height of eight stories, with 250 new rooms and 175 new bathrooms. The combined total of old and new construction was 800 rooms and 450 baths, as well as a new double entrance through a rotunda.
In July 1905, Gilbert and Hardenbergh was selected to design a new hotel at the existing Grand Union Hotel site in Ottawa, Canada. This one-million-dollar project was to include 300 hotel rooms.
Personal
In 1872, Gilbert married Cora Rathbone, daughter of the late Captain John Rathbone, in Brooklyn, New York. He was 19 and she was seventeen or eighteen years older. From its beginning, this was an unhappy marriage.
Gilbert was an elder with the University Presbyterian Church in New York City, and later an elder with the Westminster Presbyterian Church. He was a member of the
American Institute of Architects
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) is a professional organization for architects in the United States. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., the AIA offers education, government advocacy, community redevelopment, and public outreach to su ...
—New York Chapter, the
Architectural League of New York
The Architectural League of New York is a non-profit organization "for creative and intellectual work in architecture, urbanism, and related disciplines".
The league dates from 1881, when Cass Gilbert organized meetings at the Salmagundi Club for ...
, the
National Arts Club
The National Arts Club is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit and members club on Gramercy Park, Manhattan, New York City. It was founded in 1898 by Charles DeKay, an art and literary critic of the ''New York Times'' to "stimulate, foster, and promote public ...
, the
National Sculpture Society
Founded in 1893, the National Sculpture Society (NSS) was the first organization of professional sculptors formed in the United States. The purpose of the organization was to promote the welfare of American sculptors, although its founding members ...
, the Quill Club, the Riding Club, and the Transportation Club, as well as the
Chicago Club
The Chicago Club, founded in 1869, is a private social club located at 81 East Van Buren Street at Michigan Avenue in the Loop neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois, in the United States. Its membership has included many of Chicago's most prominent ...
in
Illinois
Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolita ...
New York City Rescue Mission
New York City Rescue Mission, now a controlled affiliate of The Bowery Mission, was founded in 1872 by Jerry McAuley and his wife, Maria with the purpose of providing a soup kitchen and homeless shelter.
History
Homelessness was on the rise in ...
Maria
Maria may refer to:
People
* Mary, mother of Jesus
* Maria (given name), a popular given name in many languages
Place names Extraterrestrial
* 170 Maria, a Main belt S-type asteroid discovered in 1877
* Lunar maria (plural of ''mare''), large, ...
, to give shelter and food to the poor. McAuley and his wife were Christian converts who were previously an alcoholic
convict
A convict is "a person found guilty of a crime and sentenced by a court" or "a person serving a sentence in prison". Convicts are often also known as "prisoners" or "inmates" or by the slang term "con", while a common label for former convict ...
and an alcoholic prostitute, respectively.Kurian, George Thomas; Lamport, Mark A. (2016). Jeremiah 'Jerry' McAuley in ''Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States''. Vol. 5. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1446. . After her husband's death in 1884,
Jersey City, New Jersey
Jersey City is the second-most populous city in the U.S. state of New Jersey, after Newark. On October 13, 1887, Cora Gilbert served her husband with divorce papers during the intermission of a prayer meeting at Cremorne Mission. Her claim was on the basis of infidelity, to be heard in the superior court at White Plains. At the same time, she served
alienation of affections
Alienation of affections is a common law tort, abolished in many jurisdictions. Where it still exists, an action is brought by a spouse against a third party alleged to be responsible for damaging the marriage, most often resulting in divorce. The ...
, with allegations that "were numerous and specific." Cora claimed she had been driven from her home, that her husband was abusive, and his attention had been diverted to Mrs. McAuley.
On October 16, 1887, at the Mission, Gilbert made a public announcement saying, "If it did not affect this mission and the noble Christian woman who conducts it, I would remain silent. I suppose you have all read in today's papers…a story reflecting upon Mrs. McAuley and myself. I pronounce it totally false. All those who know me will take my word, and all those who do not know me will see by the result that what I say is true." Standing by Gilbert were banker A.S Hatch, real estate agent Sidney Whittemore, Franklin W. Coe, and other ladies and gentlemen associated with McAuley Mission. Hatch also spoke, saying "The very fact that I am on this platform tonight is sufficient for the purpose without saying a word; but I may add that my faith in Mrs. McAuley and Mr. Gilbert has not been shaken one jot by what has appeared in print, and I continue to have unwavering confidence in both." McAuley "emphatically denied" the allegations. Later, Gilbert said his wife was influenced by would-be blackmailers. After Gilbert obtained a divorce, Cora withdrew the lawsuit against Maria.
Five years later, McAuley's health declined and doctors believed she would die. She resigned from her position at Cremorne Mission and moved to
Cranford, New Jersey
Cranford is a township in Union County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey, located southwest of Manhattan. As of the 2020 United States census, the township's population was 23,847, an increase of 1,222 (+5.4%) from the 2010 census count ...
. Gilbert discontinued his association with the Mission when McAuley left. On May 12, 1892, in Cranford, Gilbert married McAuley "when her health was poor and took care of her." The newspaper announcement said they had courted for five years. He was 38 and she was 55 years old. The Gilberts initially lived in a cottage on Madison Avenue, before moving to 225 Park Place in
Brooklyn
Brooklyn () is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Kings County, in the U.S. state of New York. Kings County is the most populous county in the State of New York, and the second-most densely populated county in the United States, be ...
. They also owned a summer home in the Catskills. They adopted their niece Blossom, the daughter of Maria's sister.
Around 1887, Gilbert acquired nearly in
Roscoe, New York
Roscoe is a hamlet (and census-designated place) in Sullivan County, New York, United States. The population was 541 at the 2010 census.
Roscoe is in the southwest part of the Town of Rockland, adjacent to New York State Route 17.
It is name ...
. There, he constructed his summer retreat, Beaverkill Lodge, named for the nearby river. This frame structure was clad in shingles and featured leaded Swiss-style sash windows, gas lighting, running water, and a turret.Maria, who was anIrish immigrant, said the Catskill scenery reminded her of Ireland. She named the surrounding hamlet Craig-e-Clair which translates as "beautiful mountainside". The Gilberts sold the property in 1903. In 1907, Beaverkill Lodge was acquired by Ralph Wurts-Dundas who built
Dundas Castle
Dundas Castle is a 15th-century castle, with substantial 19th-century additions by William Burn, in the Dalmeny parish of West Lothian, Scotland. The home of the Dundas family since the Middle Ages, it was sold in the late 19th century and is cur ...
or Craig-e-Clair which encapsulated Beaverkill Lodge, based on documentary photos.
There is evidence that Gilbert and Maria were close, with her joining him on various business trips. While designing the 1895 Cobblestone Church in
Schenectady, New York
Schenectady () is a city in Schenectady County, New York, United States, of which it is the county seat. As of the 2020 census, the city's population of 67,047 made it the state's ninth-largest city by population. The city is in eastern New Y ...
, Gilbert donated $800 to build its clock tower in honor of Maria. He incorporated a clock he acquired from the
New York Central Railroad
The New York Central Railroad was a railroad primarily operating in the Great Lakes and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The railroad primarily connected greater New York and Boston in the east with Chicago and St. Louis in the Midw ...
. Gilbert, who was notoriously against ornamentation, also added Celtic designs to several buildings around the time of his marriage to Maria, including the Mason Stables and the Tower Building.
''
The Brooklyn Daily Eagle
:''This article covers both the historical newspaper (1841–1955, 1960–1963), as well as an unrelated new Brooklyn Daily Eagle starting 1996 published currently''
The ''Brooklyn Eagle'' (originally joint name ''The Brooklyn Eagle'' and ''King ...
'' reported that Gilbert was recovering from a "severe illness" on August 14, 1904. On March 15, 1908, the Gilberts conducted services at the Water Street Mission. Gilbert began designing the yacht ''Jerry McAuley'' as a gift to
The Salvation Army
The Salvation Army (TSA) is a Protestant church and an international charitable organisation headquartered in London, England. The organisation reports a worldwide membership of over 1.7million, comprising soldiers, officers and adherents col ...
in June 1908. In his June 1911 dedication speech for the ship and launch of the Salvation Army Navy before a crowd of 5,000 people, Gilbert said, McAuley was "the missing link between what the church thought it could do and what God could really do." In April 1911, Gilbert was working on designs for a new building to replace the Jerry McAuley Water Street Mission. The new $100,000 building was to include a chapel, dormitories, and modern bathrooms.
On September 1, 1911, at age 58, Gilbert died of
dropsy
Edema, also spelled oedema, and also known as fluid retention, dropsy, hydropsy and swelling, is the build-up of fluid in the body's tissue. Most commonly, the legs or arms are affected. Symptoms may include skin which feels tight, the area ma ...
at his summer house in
Accord, New York
Accord is a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) in Ulster County, New York, United States. Accord is located in the eastern part of the Town of Rochester (not to be confused with the City of Rochester) along US 209. Accord is the seat of t ...
. His last architectural design was for a new mission
Selected works
Many of the surviving buildings by Gilbert are on the
National Register of Historic Places
The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) is the United States federal government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects deemed worthy of preservation for their historical significance or "great artistic v ...