There has been much speculation as to the botanical identity of ''soma'' or ''haoma''. ''
Soma
Soma may refer to:
Businesses and brands
* SOMA (architects), a New York–based firm of architects
* Soma (company), a company that designs eco-friendly water filtration systems
* SOMA Fabrications, a builder of bicycle frames and other bicycle ...
'' is a plant described in
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
sacred texts including the ''
Rigveda
The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts (''śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one Sh ...
'', while ''
haoma
''Haoma'' (; Avestan: 𐬵𐬀𐬊𐬨𐬀) is a divine plant in Zoroastrianism and in later Persian culture and mythology. ''Haoma'' has its origins in Indo-Iranian religion and is the cognate of Vedic ''soma''.
Etymology
Both Avestan ''haoma'' ...
'' is a plant described in the
Avesta
The Avesta () is the primary collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language.
The Avesta texts fall into several different categories, arranged either by dialect, or by usage. The principal text in the litu ...
, a collection of
Zoroastrian
Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheistic on ...
writings. Both names are derived from the
Proto-Indo-Iranian
Proto-Indo-Iranian, also Proto-Indo-Iranic is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian/Indo-Iranic branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium B ...
''*Sauma''. Proposed candidates include various species of
plant
Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae exclud ...
s and or
fungi
A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...
. Traditional etymology of Indian Soma is ''Somalata'' (''
Sarcostemma acidum
''Cynanchum acidum'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, typically found in the arid parts of peninsular India where it is used in religious sacrifices. The plant is religiously linked to Hinduism and is believed to be a m ...
''; 'moon plant') used traditionally by the
Srauta Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
s called
Somayajis whereas the Avestan Haoma is an Ephedra (''
Ephedra distachya
''Ephedra distachya'' is a shrub in the family Ephedraceae that stands about 25 cm to 50 cm high. The shrub grows in many parts of the world, including southern and central Europe and western and central Asia. Its local names include '' ...
''), which are totally unconnected species sourced from different areas. European researchers suggest other plants, such as the perennial ''Peganum harmala'', ''
Nelumbo nucifera
''Nelumbo nucifera'', also known as sacred lotus, Laxmi lotus, Indian lotus, or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often re ...
'' (also known as the "sacred lotus"), ''
Cannabis sativa
''Cannabis sativa'' is an annual Herbaceous plant, herbaceous flowering plant indigenous to East Asia, Eastern Asia, but now of cosmopolitan distribution due to widespread cultivation. It has been cultivated throughout recorded history, used as ...
'', and the sugarcane species ''
Tripidium bengalense
''Tripidium bengalense'', synonym ''Saccharum bengalense'', with the common names munj sweetcane, baruwa sugarcane or baruwa grass, is a plant of the genus ''Tripidium'' native to Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bangladesh and ...
'' (synonym ''Saccharum sara''); while fungal candidates include the fly-agaric mushroom ''
Amanita muscaria
''Amanita muscaria'', commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a basidiomycete of the genus ''Amanita''. It is also a muscimol mushroom. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, ''Amanita muscar ...
'', the
psilocybin
Psilocybin ( , ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of the genus ''Psilocybe'', such as '' P. azurescens'', '' P. semilanceata'', and '' P.&nbs ...
-containing mushroom ''
Psilocybe cubensis
''Psilocybe cubensis ''is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose principal active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. Commonly called shrooms, magic mushrooms, golden halos, cubes, or gold caps, it belongs to the fungus family Hymenogastrace ...
'', and the
ergot
Ergot ( ) or ergot fungi refers to a group of fungi of the genus ''Claviceps''.
The most prominent member of this group is ''Claviceps purpurea'' ("rye ergot fungus"). This fungus grows on rye and related plants, and produces alkaloids that ca ...
fungus ''
Claviceps purpurea
''Claviceps purpurea'' is an ergot fungus that grows on the ears of rye and related cereal and forage plants. Consumption of grains or seeds contaminated with the survival structure of this fungus, the ergot sclerotium, can cause ergotism in hu ...
''. Other scholarly proposals include mixtures of these candidates with each other (e.g. ''
Peganum harmala
''Peganum harmala'', commonly called wild rue, Syrian rue, African rue, esfand or espand,Mahmoud OmidsalaEsfand: a common weed found in Persia, Central Asia, and the adjacent areasEncyclopedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6, pp. 583–584. Originall ...
'' and ''
Phalaris aquatica
''Phalaris aquatica'', known by the common names bulbous canary-grass and Harding grass, is a species of grass in the genus ''Phalaris'' of the family Poaceae.
Description
It is an erect, waist-high, stout perennial bunch grass, with grayish to ...
'') and with other substances (e.g.
fermented mare's milk or
fermented honey).
Background
''Avesta''
Since the late 18th-century, when
Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron
Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron (7 December 173117 January 1805) was the first professional French Indologist. He conceived the institutional framework for the new profession. He inspired the founding of the École française d'Extrême-Orien ...
and others made portions of the
Zoroastrian
Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheistic on ...
Avesta
The Avesta () is the primary collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language.
The Avesta texts fall into several different categories, arranged either by dialect, or by usage. The principal text in the litu ...
available to Western scholarship, several scholars have sought a representative botanical equivalent of the ''haoma'' as described in the texts and as used in living Zoroastrian practice. Most of the proposed identifications have drawn primarily upon either linguistic evidence, comparative pharmacology, or reflected ritual use, but not all three: rarely have all three sources of evidence been considered in conjunction. Such unbalanced approaches to the problem of identity have resulted usually in the speedy rejection of these poorly-substantiated theories.
''Veda''s
The Rigveda calls the plant ''soma'', meaning the "Creator of the Gods" and gives ''soma'' precedence above
Indra
Indra (; Sanskrit: इन्द्र) is the king of the devas (god-like deities) and Svarga (heaven) in Hindu mythology. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes/ref> I ...
and the other Gods calling ''soma'' "a God for Gods".
Based on , ''Soma'' has been generally assumed to be
entheogen
Entheogens are psychoactive substances that induce alterations in perception, mood (psychology), mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior for the purposes of engendering spiritual development or otherwiseRätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclop ...
ic. (Note, there are numerous similar references in the Vedas, e.g. , , , , ) Some descriptions of ''soma'' are associated with ''
tapas
A tapa () is an appetizer or snack in Spanish cuisine. Tapas can be combined to make a full meal, and can be cold (such as mixed olives and cheese) or hot (such as ''chopitos'', which are battered, fried baby squid, or patatas bravas). In some ...
'' (heat, excitement, "energy"). ''Soma'' is associated with the warrior-god
Indra
Indra (; Sanskrit: इन्द्र) is the king of the devas (god-like deities) and Svarga (heaven) in Hindu mythology. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes/ref> I ...
, and appears to have been drunk before battle. For these reasons, there are stimulant (
ephedrine
Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is often used to prevent low blood pressure during anesthesia. It has also been used for asthma, narcolepsy, and obesity but is not the preferred treatment. It is of unclear benefit in ...
-like) plants as well as entheogenic plants among the candidates that have been suggested. ''Soma'' is also often associated with
light
Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 tera ...
and Indra is the "Lord of Light" as shown in
Texts like the
Atharva Veda
The Atharva Veda (, ' from ' and ''veda'', meaning "knowledge") is the "knowledge storehouse of ''atharvāṇas'', the procedures for everyday life".Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: Sushil Mittal and G ...
(and also texts of the
Brahmana
The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within ea ...
class) extol the medicinal properties of ''soma'' and it was regarded as the king of medicinal herbs.
Account of Swami Rama
In his autobiography,
Swami Rama
Swami Rama (; 1925 – 13 November 1996) was an Indian yoga guru. He moved to America in 1969, initially teaching yoga at the YMCA, and founding the Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy in Illinois in 1971; its headquarters moved to ...
recalls contacting an Indian herbologist and Vedic scholar named Vaidya Bhairavdutt, who is described as "the only living authority on ''soma''". Bhairavdutt comes to visit the swami, bringing about a pound of the herb with him. He informs the swami that though the plant's effects can be likened to that of psychedelic mushrooms, it is definitely not a mushroom, but rather a succulent plant.
Bhairavdutt convinces the swami to join him in partaking the ''soma''. The taste, says Swami Rama, is "a little bit bitter and sour." Bhairavdutt becomes inebriated and dances wildly, claiming he is Shiva. Several students attempt to restrain the apparently slightly built Bhairavdutt, but are unable to do so.
Meanwhile, Swami Rama develops a crippling headache, a symptom which is compatible with the effects of high doses of ephedrine. No hallucinogenic effects are described by Swami Rama.
Candidates for the identity of ''Soma/Haoma''
Plants
''Sarcostemma acidum''
![Sarcostemma acidum(Roxb)Voigt](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Sarcostemma_acidum%28Roxb%29Voigt.jpg)
When Vedic rituals such as the ''
somayaga
The Somayajna (ISO: ) or Somayaga (ISO: ) or Soma sacrifice is a Hindu ritual. It is a type of ''yajna'' performed to appease celestial entities to promote the well-being of all humanity.
This ritual is based on methods described in the Vedas. S ...
'' are held today, traditionally in unbroken continuity in Southern India by
Srauta Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
s called
Somayajis , the herb used is ''Somalata'' ('Moon creeper') ''
Sarcostemma acidum
''Cynanchum acidum'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, typically found in the arid parts of peninsular India where it is used in religious sacrifices. The plant is religiously linked to Hinduism and is believed to be a m ...
'', a leafless plant that grows in arid places in peninsular India. This plant is known as the ''somalata'' (“soma plant”) in
Ayurveda
Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population repo ...
and
Siddha medicine
Siddha medicine is a form of traditional medicine originating in southern India. It is one of the oldest systems of medicine in India.
In rural India, have learned methods traditionally through master-disciple relationships to become loca ...
.
''Ephedra''
![Ephedra distachya](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Ephedra_distachya.jpg)
A candidate favoured by proponents of the non-hallucinogenic /
stimulant
Stimulants (also often referred to as psychostimulants or colloquially as uppers) is an overarching term that covers many drugs including those that increase activity of the central nervous system and the body, drugs that are pleasurable and inv ...
hypothesis is a species of ''
Ephedra Ephedra may refer to:
* Ephedra (medicine), a medicinal preparation from the plant ''Ephedra sinica''
* ''Ephedra'' (plant), genus of gymnosperm shrubs
See also
* Ephedrine
Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is of ...
''.
Ephedrine
Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is often used to prevent low blood pressure during anesthesia. It has also been used for asthma, narcolepsy, and obesity but is not the preferred treatment. It is of unclear benefit in ...
, the principle active compound present in this plant, has a chemical structure similar to those of the
amphetamine
Amphetamine (contracted from alpha- methylphenethylamine) is a strong central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and obesity. It is also commonly used ...
s, and, when ingested, causes, among other effects, high blood-pressure. According to anecdotal reports, it also possesses a stimulating effect more potent than that of
caffeine
Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is mainly used recreationally as a cognitive enhancer, increasing alertness and attentional performance. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine t ...
.
In the late 19th century, the highly conservative Zoroastrians of
Yazd
Yazd ( fa, یزد ), formerly also known as Yezd, is the capital of Yazd Province, Iran. The city is located southeast of Isfahan. At the 2016 census, the population was 1,138,533. Since 2017, the historical city of Yazd is recognized as a Worl ...
province in
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
were found to be using ''Ephedra'', (known locally known as ''hum'' or ''homa'') which they were also exporting to their fellow
Zoroastrian
Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheistic on ...
s in India. The plant, as Falk also established, requires a cool (but not cold) and dry climate and thus will not grow in India (which is too hot and/or too humid) but will thrive in
central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
. ''
Ephedra distachya
''Ephedra distachya'' is a shrub in the family Ephedraceae that stands about 25 cm to 50 cm high. The shrub grows in many parts of the world, including southern and central Europe and western and central Asia. Its local names include '' ...
'' is native to southern Europe and northern Asia. Later, it was discovered that a number of
Iranian languages
The Iranian languages or Iranic languages are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, predominantly in the Iranian Plateau.
The Iranian languages are grouped ...
and Persian dialects have ''hom'' or similar terms as the local name for some variant of ''Ephedra''.
Ephedra plants are shrubs, measuring between 0.2 and 4 meters, with numerous green or yellowish stems. There are about 30 species, mainly Eurasian. The species growing in mountainous regions have the highest ephedrine content (up to 3% in the case of ''
Ephedra equisetina Ephedra may refer to:
* Ephedra (medicine), a medicinal preparation from the plant ''Ephedra sinica''
* ''Ephedra'' (plant), genus of gymnosperm shrubs
See also
* Ephedrine
Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is oft ...
''). The colour of the stem pith of certain Ephedra species is brown, recalling the Sanskrit epithet ''babhru'' ("greyish-brown"), used exclusively in the Vedas to describe the colour of the extract produced by pounding the stems of the soma plant.
The different species of ''Ephedra'' are not well known, and their taxonomy is in a state of confusion. Assuming a Pontic-Caspian home of Indo-Iranian religions (see
Kurgan
A kurgan is a type of tumulus constructed over a grave, often characterized by containing a single human body along with grave vessels, weapons and horses. Originally in use on the Pontic–Caspian steppe, kurgans spread into much of Central Asi ...
), the only likely candidate is ''E. distachya'', still used in Iranian folk medicine.
The native name for ''Ephedra'' in most Indo-Iranian languages of Central Asia is derived from ''*sauma-'' (e.g.
Nepali ''somalata'',
Pashto
Pashto (,; , ) is an Eastern Iranian language in the Indo-European language family. It is known in historical Persian literature as Afghani ().
Spoken as a native language mostly by ethnic Pashtuns, it is one of the two official languages ...
''Oman''/''unan'',
Baluchi ''hum''/''huma''/''uma'').
In 1989, in a highly influential text, Harry Falk pointed out that both the Flattery and Wasson arguments assumed that ''haoma'' was hallucinogenic, although the effect desired by Zoroastrian and Vedic ritual use was not. Falk noted that, in the texts, both ''haoma'' and ''soma'' were said to enhance alertness and awareness, did not coincide with the consciousness altering effects of an
entheogen
Entheogens are psychoactive substances that induce alterations in perception, mood (psychology), mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior for the purposes of engendering spiritual development or otherwiseRätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclop ...
, and that "there is nothing shamanistic or visionary either in early Vedic or in Old Iranian texts,"
nor could the small doses administered in living Zoroastrian custom justify its consideration as an inebriant. Living custom also does not give the extract enough time to ferment, ruling out the possibility of any intoxicating effect dependant upon the presence of alcohol.
Falk established that the effect of the
alkaloid
Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...
ephedrine was, in many respects, similar to adrenaline, but "its actions are less intense but more prolonged than those of adrenaline, and, most important, it prevents sleeping." Chemically, ephedrine is similar to
amphetamine
Amphetamine (contracted from alpha- methylphenethylamine) is a strong central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and obesity. It is also commonly used ...
(amphetamine itself originating as an innovative "upgrade" of an ephedrine prototypical base). Falk also asserted that the three varieties of ephedra that yield ephedrine (''
E. gerardiana'', ''
E. major procera'' and ''
E. intermedia'') also have the properties attributed to ''haoma'' by the texts of the Avesta.
In 1994,
Viktor Sarianidi
Viktor Ivanovich Sarianidi or Victor Sarigiannides (russian: Ви́ктор Ива́нович Сариани́ди; el, Βίκτωρ Σαρηγιαννίδης; September 23, 1929 – December 22, 2013) was a Soviet archaeologist. He discovered ...
claimed that ancient ritual objects found at
BMAC archeological sites in
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
bore traces of ''Ephedra'' stalks and ''
Papaver
''Papaver'' is a genus of 70–100 species of frost-tolerant annuals, biennials, and perennials native to temperate and cold regions of Eurasia, Africa and North America. It is the type genus of the poppy family, Papaveraceae.
Description
The ...
'' (poppy) seeds. In 1995, Harri Nyberg investigated the specimens provided by Sarianidi but could not confirm the claim.
Another site provided material which Sarianidi had declared contained traces of ''Ephedra'', ''Papaver'', and ''
Cannabis
''Cannabis'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: ''Cannabis sativa'', '' C. indica'', and '' C. ruderalis''. Alternatively ...
'' (hemp) in 1998–1999. It was analysed in 2002–2003 by three independent teams, but they found no traces of the claimed contents.
Nonetheless, in the conclusion of his observations on the 1999 ''haoma-soma'' workshop in Leiden, Jan E. M. Houben writes that "
spite strong attempts to do away with ''Ephedra'' by those who are eager to see ''*sauma'' as a hallucinogen, its status as a serious candidate for the Rigvedic ''soma'' and Avestan ''haoma'' still stands."
This supports Falk, who in his summary noted that "there is no need to look for a plant other than ''Ephedra'', the one plant used to this day by the
Parsis
Parsis () or Parsees are an ethnoreligious group of the Indian subcontinent adhering to Zoroastrianism. They are descended from Persians who migrated to Medieval India during and after the Arab conquest of Iran (part of the early Muslim co ...
"''.''
''Peganum harmala''
![Peganum harmala0](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Peganum_harmala0.jpg)
In 1989, David Flattery, with linguistic support from Martin Schwarz, concentrated again on Iranian ''haoma''. The two paid particular attention to the
hallucinogen
Hallucinogens are a large, diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorized ...
ic properties that may be interpreted from the texts, and discounted ''Ephedra'' because they could not observe Zoroastrian priests becoming intoxicated.
They concluded that it was "therefore neither likely that ''Ephedra'' was a substitute for *sauma nor that it was *sauma itself" and that the
ephedrine
Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is often used to prevent low blood pressure during anesthesia. It has also been used for asthma, narcolepsy, and obesity but is not the preferred treatment. It is of unclear benefit in ...
and
pseudoephedrine
Pseudoephedrine (PSE) is a sympathomimetic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It may be used as a nasal/sinus decongestant, as a stimulant, or as a wakefulness-promoting agent in higher doses.
It was first characteri ...
alkaloids extracted from ''Ephedra'' had to be mixed with the extract from some other plant to achieve the described effects. Flattery proposed the second plant was ''
Peganum harmala
''Peganum harmala'', commonly called wild rue, Syrian rue, African rue, esfand or espand,Mahmoud OmidsalaEsfand: a common weed found in Persia, Central Asia, and the adjacent areasEncyclopedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6, pp. 583–584. Originall ...
'' (harmal, harmel, Syrian rue, see also
harmaline
Harmaline is a fluorescent indole alkaloid from the group of harmala alkaloids and beta-carbolines. It is the partly hydrogenated form of harmine.
Occurrence in nature
Various plants contain harmaline including ''Peganum harmala'' (Syrian rue) ...
), known in Iranian languages as ''esfand'', ''sepand'' or other similar terms related to Avestan word ''spenta'' ('sacred', 'holy'). Flattery considered harmel to be the real ''haoma'', with ''Ephedra'' only being the secondary ingredient in the ''parahaoma'' mixture.
Another factor involved in favouring ''Peganum harmala'' as the identity of ''soma''-''haoma'' is the use of plants with a similar chemistry (notably ''
Banisteriopsis caapi
''Banisteriopsis caapi'', also known as ayahuasca, caapi, soul vine, or yagé (yage), is a South American liana of the family Malpighiaceae. It is one half of ayahuasca, a decoction with a long history of its entheogenic (connecting to spirit) us ...
'') by certain South American cultures to prepare hallucinogenic drinks in which the plants'
harmala alkaloid
Several alkaloids that function as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are found in the seeds of ''Peganum harmala'' (also known as ''Harmal'' or ''Syrian Rue''), as well as tobacco leaves including harmine, harmaline, and harmalol, which are m ...
s serve to potentiate the effects of other ingredients. The Iranian flora is not rich in true hallucinogenic species - ''P. harmala'' is the only
incense
Incense is aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also be ...
plant with hallucinogenic properties in Iran and the only one which could activate normally inactive compounds present in certain other Iranian plants. Such Peganum-containing drinks could have furnished intoxicants compatible with the purported role of the drink described in the Indo-Iranian texts (as understood by proponents of the hallucinogen hypothesis).
''Peganum harmala'' contains
harmaline
Harmaline is a fluorescent indole alkaloid from the group of harmala alkaloids and beta-carbolines. It is the partly hydrogenated form of harmine.
Occurrence in nature
Various plants contain harmaline including ''Peganum harmala'' (Syrian rue) ...
, which is a strong
MAO-inhibitor, and it is therefore often used as a first component in modern practices modelled on
ayahuasca
AyahuascaPronounced as in the UK and in the US. Also occasionally known in English as ''ayaguasca'' (Spanish-derived), ''aioasca'' (Brazilian Portuguese-derived), or as ''yagé'', pronounced or . Etymologically, all forms but ''yagé'' descen ...
ceremonies, in which (as with the
Banisteriopsis component of the traditional South American drink) its alkaloids inhibit the metabolisation of an orally administered
DMT
''N'',''N''-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT or ''N'',''N''-DMT, SPL026) is a substituted tryptamine that occurs in many plants and animals, including human beings, and which is both a derivative and a structural analog of tryptamine. It is used as a ...
molecule (2nd component). Since co-occurrence of DMT-bearing
Phalaris
Phalaris ( el, Φάλαρις) was the tyrant of Akragas (now Agrigento) in Sicily, from approximately 570 to 554 BC.
History
Phalaris was renowned for his excessive cruelty. Among his alleged atrocities is cannibalism: he was said to have e ...
grass and the
MAOI
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are a class of drugs that inhibit the activity of one or both monoamine oxidase enzymes: monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B). They are best known as effective antidepressants, especi ...
-rich ''Peganum harmala'' has been observed at
Yazd
Yazd ( fa, یزد ), formerly also known as Yezd, is the capital of Yazd Province, Iran. The city is located southeast of Isfahan. At the 2016 census, the population was 1,138,533. Since 2017, the historical city of Yazd is recognized as a Worl ...
,
Persepolis
, native_name_lang =
, alternate_name =
, image = Gate of All Nations, Persepolis.jpg
, image_size =
, alt =
, caption = Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis.
, map =
, map_type ...
,
Merv
Merv ( tk, Merw, ', مرو; fa, مرو, ''Marv''), also known as the Merve Oasis, formerly known as Alexandria ( grc-gre, Ἀλεξάνδρεια), Antiochia in Margiana ( grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ) and ...
and
Termez
Termez ( uz, Termiz/Термиз; fa, ترمذ ''Termez, Tirmiz''; ar, ترمذ ''Tirmidh''; russian: Термез; Ancient Greek: ''Tàrmita'', ''Thàrmis'', ) is the capital of Surxondaryo Region in southern Uzbekistan. Administratively, it is ...
, the hypothesis stating that ''soma''/''haoma'' was a biochemical
Eurasia
Eurasia (, ) is the largest continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. Primarily in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, it spans from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Japanese archipelago a ...
n correlate of ayahuasca cannot be excluded ''
a priori
("from the earlier") and ("from the later") are Latin phrases used in philosophy to distinguish types of knowledge, justification, or argument by their reliance on empirical evidence or experience. knowledge is independent from current ex ...
.''
''Nelumbo nucifera''
![莲藕](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/%E8%8E%B2%E8%97%95.jpg)
Based on a detailed botanical analysis of iconography and ancient texts, ''
Nelumbo nucifera
''Nelumbo nucifera'', also known as sacred lotus, Laxmi lotus, Indian lotus, or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often re ...
'', the 'sacred lotus', is another candidate for ''soma'': the descriptions of ''soma'' in the Vedic texts can be construed as being reminiscent of the morphology of this much-venerated water plant, which has long featured prominently in the religious symbolism of the east. ''Nelumbo nucifera'' is a waterlily-like plant that produces golden-red flowers on long stalks arising from rootstocks anchored in the mud of lake bottoms. The appearance of its flower recalls certain metaphors employed in the ancient texts which compare ''soma'' to an arrow and to the sun. Certain Vedic hymns describe soma as having a "ruddy radiance" - referable possibly to the colour of the flowers of ''Nelumbo nucifera''. ''Soma'' is also described in the Vedic hymns as growing "joint by joint, knot by knot" - a good description of a plant that grows by producing procumbent shoots with nodes and internodes. In addition,
benzoisoquinoline alkaloid
Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...
s found in ''Nelumbo nucifera'', including
aporphine
Aporphine is an alkaloid with the chemical formula . The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) name of aporphine is ''6-methyl-5,6,6a,7-tetrahydro-4H-dibenzo e,guinoline.'' It is the core chemical substructure of the aporphine ...
,
proaporphine, and
nuciferine
Nuciferine is an alkaloid found within the plants ''Nymphaea caerulea'' and ''Nelumbo nucifera''.
Preliminary psychopharmacological research in 1978 was unable to conclusively determine the compound's classification in regards to dopamine-recepto ...
, are psychoactive, producing feelings of
euphoria
Euphoria ( ) is the experience (or affect) of pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to or making music and da ...
when ingested.
''Cannabis sativa''
![Cannabis Sativa tree](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Cannabis_Sativa_tree.jpg)
Some believe that
cannabis
''Cannabis'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: ''Cannabis sativa'', '' C. indica'', and '' C. ruderalis''. Alternatively ...
is one possible candidate for soma. Jogesh Chandra Ray claims that the method of preparation of soma and
bhang
Bhang (IAST: ''Bhāṅg'') is an edible preparation made from the leaves of the cannabis plant originating from the Indian subcontinent. It has been used in food and drink as early as 1000 BC in ancient India. Bhang is traditionally distribu ...
(an
edible
An edible item is any item that is safe for humans to eat. "Edible" is differentiated from "eatable" because it does not indicate how an item tastes, only whether it is fit to be eaten. Nonpoisonous items found in nature – such as some mushroo ...
preparation of Cannabis) are similar and the described effects of soma and bhang are also similar. He also claims that the habitat of the soma plant and Cannabis plant are similar and that they originate from the north west
Himalayan region. Chris Bennett, in his book ''Cannabis and the Soma Solution'', likewise draws parallels and similarities between soma and cannabis.
Excavations at the
Margiana temples have revealed the remains of a process used for making a drink similar to soma-haoma. This may constitute archeological evidence supporting the process for producing soma attested in the Avesta and the Rigveda. In the temples found, the central position is occupied by what have been dubbed "white rooms", along the walls of which are sunk, into side platforms, vessels carved from thick layers of gypsum. These basins have yielded dried residues derived from drinks containing infusions of the psychoactive plants ephedra, cannabis and (opium) poppy. Scholars such as
Victor Sarianidi state that this proves that soma was made from a combination of poppy, cannabis and ephedra. Other scholars support Sarianidi's claims.
Some scholars, such as Mia Touw, have suggested that the Chinese name for cannabis, ' ( ), which was also called ' ( ) meaning "
Scythian
The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern
* : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Centra ...
hemp" or "
Iranian
Iranian may refer to:
* Iran, a sovereign state
* Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples is also used for this term to distinguish the pan ethnic term from Iranian, used for the people of Iran
* Iranian lan ...
hemp", was a
phonosemantic borrowing from a
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
n language, possibly a cognate of the
Avestan
Avestan (), or historically Zend, is an umbrella term for two Old Iranian languages: Old Avestan (spoken in the 2nd millennium BCE) and Younger Avestan (spoken in the 1st millennium BCE). They are known only from their conjoined use as the scrip ...
word ''Haoma'', lending some etymological evidence to the hypothesis that identifies cannabis as soma.
Sugarcane
Several authors have identified ''
Tripidium bengalense
''Tripidium bengalense'', synonym ''Saccharum bengalense'', with the common names munj sweetcane, baruwa sugarcane or baruwa grass, is a plant of the genus ''Tripidium'' native to Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bangladesh and ...
'' (synonym ''Saccharum sara''), a variety of sugarcane that grows near lakes as source of Vedic ''soma'' or with an ancient variety of sugarcane that may presently be extinct.
Other, less-popular candidates
* ''
Papaver somniferum
''Papaver somniferum'', commonly known as the opium poppy or breadseed poppy, is a species of flowering plant in the family Papaveraceae. It is the species of plant from which both opium and poppy seeds are derived and is also a valuable orname ...
''
* ''
Argyreia nervosa
''Argyreia nervosa'' is a perennial climbing vine native to the Indian subcontinent and introduced to numerous areas worldwide, including Hawaii, Africa, and the Caribbean. Though it can be invasive, it is often prized for its aesthetic and me ...
''
* ''
Periploca aphylla''
* ''
Sarcostemma
''Sarcostemma'' is a genus of flowering plants in the Apocynum, dogbane family, Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1810. The name is derived from the Greek language, Greek words σαρκὸς (''sarkos''), meaning "flesh," and στέμ ...
brevistigma''
* ''
Sarcostemma viminale
''Cynanchum viminale'' is a leafless succulent plant in the family Apocynaceae. The species is native to West Africa, the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific region. The species' natural range extends from South Africa throughout much of Africa and ...
''
Fungi
Fly-agaric
![Amanita muscaria 01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Amanita_muscaria_01.jpg)
From the late 1960s onwards, several studies attempted to establish ''soma'' as a
psychotropic
A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, psychoactive agent or psychotropic drug is a chemical substance, that changes functions of the nervous system, and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior.
Th ...
substance. A number of proposals were made, included an important one in 1968 by
Robert Gordon Wasson
Robert Gordon Wasson (September 22, 1898 – December 23, 1986) was an American author, ethnomycologist, and Vice President for Public Relations at J.P. Morgan & Co.
In the course of work funded by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Wasso ...
, an amateur mycologist, who (on Vedic evidence) asserted that ''soma'' was an inebriant, and suggested fly-agaric mushroom, ''
Amanita muscaria
''Amanita muscaria'', commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a basidiomycete of the genus ''Amanita''. It is also a muscimol mushroom. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, ''Amanita muscar ...
'', as the likely candidate. Wasson and his co-author,
Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty
Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (born November 20, 1940) is an American Indologist whose professional career has spanned five decades. A scholar of Sanskrit and Indian textual traditions, her major works include, 'The Hindus: an alternative history'; ' ...
, drew parallels between Vedic descriptions and reports of Siberian uses of the fly-agaric in
shamanic
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritu ...
ritual. Furthermore, the mountainous origin of ''soma'' matches the habitat of fly-agaric, and when discussing ''soma'', the Vedas do not mention any part of a flowering tree.
In 1971, Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson's theory and drew attention to
ephedrine
Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is often used to prevent low blood pressure during anesthesia. It has also been used for asthma, narcolepsy, and obesity but is not the preferred treatment. It is of unclear benefit in ...
(in particular to that extracted from ''
Ephedra sinica
''Ephedra sinica'' (also known as Chinese ephedra or Ma Huang) is a species of ''Ephedra'' native to Mongolia, Russia (Buryatiya, Chita, Primorye), and northeastern China ( Gansu, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Ni ...
''), and noted that it "is a powerful stimulant, and would thus be a more plausible preparation for warriors about to go into
battle than the fly-agaric, which is a depressant." (for use of ''parahaoma'' by soldiers, see reference to the
Ab-Zohr
The Ab-Zohr (; ae, 𐬀𐬞 𐬰𐬀𐬊𐬚𐬭𐬀, translit=ap-zaoθra; pal, 𐭠𐭯 𐭦𐭥𐭧𐭫, translit=ab-zohr) is the culminating rite of the greater ''Yasna'' service, the principal Zoroastrian act of worship that accompanies the ...
in ''
Denkard
The ''Dēnkard'' or ''Dēnkart'' (Middle Persian: 𐭣𐭩𐭭𐭪𐭠𐭫𐭲 "Acts of Religion") is a 10th-century compendium of Zoroastrian beliefs and customs during the time. The Denkard is to a great extent considered an "Encyclopedia of Ma ...
'' 8.25.24). This was in turn contradicted in 1974 by Iranologist Ilya Greshevitch, who determined that, in small doses, fly-agaric was indeed a
stimulant
Stimulants (also often referred to as psychostimulants or colloquially as uppers) is an overarching term that covers many drugs including those that increase activity of the central nervous system and the body, drugs that are pleasurable and inv ...
. In any case, since the "weapon" that Indra uses is the "Vajra" which emits "lightning bolts", the "battles" could not have been physical ones.
J. P. Mallory
James Patrick Mallory (born October 25, 1945) is an American archaeologist and Indo-Europeanist. Mallory is an emeritus professor at Queen's University, Belfast; a member of the Royal Irish Academy, and the former editor of the ''Journal of Ind ...
rejects Wasson's argument that the absence of Vedic descriptions of plant parts point to a fungus, since the Vedas do not describe in other than metaphorical detail the plant from which the soma drink was extracted. He further explains the references to mountains as a metaphor "recalling ''soma''
's lofty origins".
Kevin Feeney and Trent Austin compared the references in the Vedas with the filtering mechanisms in the preparation of Amanita muscaria and published findings supporting the proposal that fly-agaric mushrooms could be a likely candidate for the sacrament.
Said Gholam Mochtar and
Hartmut Geerken
Hartmut Geerken (15 January 1939 – 21 October 2021) was a German musician, composer, writer, journalist, playwright, and filmmaker.
Life
Geerken was born in Stuttgart, read oriental studies, philosophy, German studies and comparative religion ...
published their findings regarding the medicinal and recreational use of ''A. muscaria'' among the
Parachi
Parachi (''Parāčī'') is an Iranian language. Parachi is spoken by some 600 individuals of the Parachi ethnic group in eastern Afghanistan, mainly in the upper part of Nijrab District, northeast of Kabul, out of a total ethnic Parachi populat ...
-speaking inhabitants of the
Shutul Valley in the
Hindu Kush
The Hindu Kush is an mountain range in Central and South Asia to the west of the Himalayas. It stretches from central and western Afghanistan, Quote: "The Hindu Kush mountains run along the Afghan border with the North-West Frontier Provinc ...
range of Afghanistan.
ee below[Mochtar, S.G. & H. Geerken. (1979). Die Halluzinogene Muscarin und Ibotensäure im Mittleren Hindukusch: Ein Beitrag zur volkheilpraktischen Mykologie. Afghanistan Journal 6:62-65. ]
''Psilocybe cubensis''
![Psilocybe Cubensis](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Psilocybe_Cubensis.JPG)
In his book ''Food of the Gods'',
Terence McKenna
Terence Kemp McKenna (November 16, 1946 – April 3, 2000) was an American ethnobotanist and mystic who advocated the responsible use of naturally occurring psychedelic plants. He spoke and wrote about a variety of subjects, including ...
criticizes the ''Amanita muscaria'' theory and suggests the
psilocybin
Psilocybin ( , ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of the genus ''Psilocybe'', such as '' P. azurescens'', '' P. semilanceata'', and '' P.&nbs ...
-containing ''
Psilocybe cubensis
''Psilocybe cubensis ''is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose principal active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. Commonly called shrooms, magic mushrooms, golden halos, cubes, or gold caps, it belongs to the fungus family Hymenogastrace ...
'' mushroom as a ''soma'' candidate. McKenna argues that effects of the ''A. muscaria'' mushrooms contradict the description of the properties described in the ''
Rigveda
The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts (''śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one Sh ...
''. Mushrooms of ''A. muscaria'' have properties that are arguably more
deliriant
Deliriants are a subclass of hallucinogen. The term was coined in the early 1980s to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics and dissociatives such as LSD and ketamine, respectively, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as opposed t ...
than
psychedelic
Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary states of consciousness (known as psychedelic experiences or "trips").Pollan, Michael (2018). ''How to Change Your Mind: What the New Science of ...
.
Psilocybin
Psilocybin ( , ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of the genus ''Psilocybe'', such as '' P. azurescens'', '' P. semilanceata'', and '' P.&nbs ...
, the active
psychoactive
A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, psychoactive agent or psychotropic drug is a chemical substance, that changes functions of the nervous system, and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior.
Th ...
component in ''P. cubensis'', has a strong mind-altering effect. McKenna cites other cultures who use and venerate psychedelic plant-drugs in religious ceremonies such as at
Chavin de Huantar
Chavin may refer to:
Places
* Chavín de Huantar, an archaeological site in Peru built by the Chavín culture
* Chavín District, Chincha, Peru
* Chavín de Huantar District, Huari, Peru
* Chavín de Pariarca District, Huamalies, Peru
* Chavin ...
, Peru.
Gordon Wasson, who initially suggested that the ''soma'' plant was ''A. muscaria'', described ''Psilocybe cubensis'' as "easily identified and gathered" in India, and eventually hypothesized, along with McKenna, that ''P. cubensis'' was perhaps the true identity of ''soma''. McKenna and Wasson both unsuccessfully attempted to use ''A. muscaria'' to achieve a state of consciousness conducive to the development of a religion.
The 9th mandala of the ''
Rigveda
The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts (''śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one Sh ...
'' suggests that the cow is the embodiment of ''soma'', which provides support for McKenna's theory because ''P. cubensis'' is known to grow in cow dung.
An ancient rug discovered in the year 2010 depicts figures conjectured to be those of kings, priests, and/or even warriors - one of whom is holding an object strongly resembling a mushroom with a large cap. The context has been interpreted as an offering forming part of a Haoma ritual performed next to fire.
The Mushroom of the Noin-Ula rug and a Persian entheogen
![Noin-Ula nobleman portrait](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Noin-Ula_nobleman_portrait.jpg)
In the context of a possible fungal identity for ''haoma'', some remarkable evidence has been found in the iconography employed in an ancient,
embroidered
Embroidery is the craft of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to apply thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. In modern days, embroidery is usually seen on c ...
rug discovered in the year 2010 in a
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...
burial chamber in Mongolia's
Noin-Ula burial site
The Noin-Ula burial site ( mn, Ноён уулын булш, , also Noyon Uul) consist of more than 200 large burial mounds, approximately square in plan, some 2 m in height, covering timber burial chambers. They are located by the Selenga River ...
. This depicts figures conjectured to be those of kings, priests, and/or warriors - one of whom is holding an object strongly resembling a large mushroom with a broad, scalloped (or spotted) cap and a bulbous base - this within the context of what appears to an offering forming part of a ''haoma'' ritual performed next to a
fire altar
A fire temple, Agiary, Atashkadeh ( fa, آتشکده), Atashgah () or Dar-e Mehr () is the place of worship for the followers of Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Iran (Name of Iran, Persia).
In the Zoroastrian religion, fire (see ''atar'' ...
(see also
Atar
Atar, Atash, or Azar ( ae, 𐬁𐬙𐬀𐬭, translit=ātar) is the Zoroastrian concept of holy fire, sometimes described in abstract terms as "burning and unburning fire" or "visible and invisible fire" (Mirza, 1987:389). It is considered to b ...
). The embroidery is not only of a high quality, but also exhibits a remarkable degree of preservation, permitting detailed analysis of facial features, costume and ritual paraphernalia - even allowing the dating of the artifact to within fifty years on either side of the turn of the
Common Era
Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the or ...
. The authors offer a tentative identification of the mushroom depicted in the ritual as ''Psilocybe cubensis'', although they reference also ''Amanita muscaria'', while casting doubt upon the suitability of the chemistry of the latter species for inducing ecstasies of the type evoked by ''haoma''.
The time-worn cloth found on the floor covered with blue clay of the Xiongnu burial chamber and brought back to life by restorers has a long and complicated story. It was made someplace in Syria or Palestine, embroidered, probably, in north-western India and found in Mongolia...The manner in which the warrior with a horse is depicted copies in minute detail the images on the heads of the coins minted by Indo-Scythian (Saka
The Saka ( Old Persian: ; Kharoṣṭhī: ; Ancient Egyptian: , ; , old , mod. , ), Shaka (Sanskrit ( Brāhmī): , , ; Sanskrit (Devanāgarī): , ), or Sacae (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples who hist ...
) kings: Azes I
Azes I (Greek: , epigraphically ; Kharosthi: , ) was an Indo-Scythian ruler who ruled around c. 48/47 BCE – 25 BCE with a dynastic empire based in the Punjab and Indus Valley, completed the domination of the Scythians in the northwestern In ...
, Aziles (typo for Azilises
Azilises (Greek: , (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , ) was an Indo-Scythian king who ruled in the area of Gandhara circa 57-35 BCE.
Name
Azes's name is attested on his coins in the Greek form () and the Kharosthi form (), which are both derived ...
q.v.) and Azes II
Azes II (Greek: , epigraphically ; Kharosthi: , ), may have been the last Indo-Scythian king, speculated to have reigned circa 35–12 BCE, in the northern Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan). His existence has been questioned; if he did ...
, who governed north-western India approximately from 57 BC, as well as by their successor Gondofar, the first Indo-Parthian ruler of West and East Punjab (from 20 AD to 46 AD)...These similarities are an important argument in favor of the hypothesis that the carpet shows Indo-Scythians or Indo-Parthians.
Some ethnomycological evidence, relevant to a tentative identification of the mushroom depicted in the Noin-Ula rug, may be found in an article published in 1979 by Said Gholam Mochtar and
Hartmut Geerken
Hartmut Geerken (15 January 1939 – 21 October 2021) was a German musician, composer, writer, journalist, playwright, and filmmaker.
Life
Geerken was born in Stuttgart, read oriental studies, philosophy, German studies and comparative religion ...
in which the authors describe a tradition involving the medicinal and recreational use of ''Amanita muscaria'' among a
Parachi
Parachi (''Parāčī'') is an Iranian language. Parachi is spoken by some 600 individuals of the Parachi ethnic group in eastern Afghanistan, mainly in the upper part of Nijrab District, northeast of Kabul, out of a total ethnic Parachi populat ...
-speaking group living in the remote
Shutul Valley of the
Panjshir Province
Panjshir (Dari: , literally "Five Lions," also spelled as Panjsher) is one of the thirty-four provinces of Afghanistan, located in the northeastern part of the country containing the Panjshir Valley. The province is divided into seven district ...
of Afghanistan. Mochtar and Geerken's research, while intriguing, has not yet been corroborated by other investigators (an unsurprising state of affairs in view of a history of conflict in Afghanistan rendering scholarly fieldwork difficult, if not impossible). This said, if their conclusions are correct and Shutuli amanita use is a practice of some antiquity, this would place a tradition featuring ritual use of the fly agaric in the area in which the Noin-Ula embroidery was created (i.e. in a region abutting the northwest frontier of India) and in which a haoma-using Zoroastrian milieu would be historically plausible, given the Indo-Scythian provenance of the clothing depicted and the portrayal of a fire altar. Regarding the ability of ''A. muscaria'' to evoke transcendent states of consciousness comparable to those evoked by Soma/Haoma, it may be noted that the Shutuli refer to their mushroom by the Parachi name ''Chashm baskhon'' (= "the opener of the eye").
Ergot
In ''The Road to Eleusis'', the authors,
R. Gordon Wasson
Robert Gordon Wasson (September 22, 1898 – December 23, 1986) was an American author, ethnomycologist, and Vice President for Public Relations at J.P. Morgan & Co.
In the course of work funded by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Wasso ...
,
Albert Hofmann
Albert Hofmann (11 January 1906 – 29 April 2008) was a Swiss chemist known for being the first to synthesize, ingest, and learn of the psychedelic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Hofmann's team also isolated, named and synthesiz ...
, and
Carl A. P. Ruck
Carl A. P. Ruck (born December 8, 1935, Bridgeport, Connecticut), is a professor in the Classical Studies department at Boston University. He received his B.A. at Yale University, his M.A. at the University of Michigan, and a Ph.D. at Harvard Uni ...
, note the similarity in preparation of the Vedic ''soma'' and the
Kykeon
Kykeon (, ; from , "to stir, to mix") was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek drink of various descriptions. Some were made mainly of water, barley and naturally occurring substances. Others were made with wine and grated cheese. It is widely believe ...
of the
Eleusinian Mysteries
The Eleusinian Mysteries ( el, Ἐλευσίνια Μυστήρια, Eleusínia Mystḗria) were initiations held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone based at the Panhellenic Sanctuary of Elefsina in ancient Greece. They are the " ...
. The book hypothesizes that the source of both was ergot (''
Claviceps purpurea
''Claviceps purpurea'' is an ergot fungus that grows on the ears of rye and related cereal and forage plants. Consumption of grains or seeds contaminated with the survival structure of this fungus, the ergot sclerotium, can cause ergotism in hu ...
'').
References
Bibliography
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*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
*
The Cannabis Soma/Haoma Theory: A Synopsis Based on the Latest Textual and Archeological Evidence
{{DEFAULTSORT:Botanical identity of soma-haoma
*
Cannabis and religion
Entheogens
Herbal and fungal hallucinogens
History of Zoroastrianism
Vedas