The Book of Poruḷ, in full Poruṭpāl (

Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia **Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, nativ ...

: பொருட்பால், literally, "division of wealth or polity"), also known as the Book of Wealth, Book of Polity, the Second Book or Book Two in translated versions, is the second of the three books or parts of the Kural literature, authored by the

ancient India According to consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by m ...

philosopher A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...

Valluvar Thiruvalluvar (Tamil language, Tamil: திருவள்ளுவர்), commonly known as Valluvar, was a celebrated Tamil people, Tamil poet and philosopher. He is best known as the author of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'', a collection of coup ...

. Written in High Tamil

distich A couplet is a pair of successive lines of metre in poetry. A couplet usually consists of two successive lines that rhyme and have the same metre. A couplet may be formal (closed) or run-on (open). In a formal (or closed) couplet, each of the ...

form, it has 70 chapters each containing 10 kurals or couplets, making a total of 700 couplets all dealing with statecraft. ''Poruḷ'', which means both 'wealth' and 'meaning', correlates with the second of the four ancient Indian values of

dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...

artha ''Artha'' (; sa, अर्थ; Tamil: ''poruḷ'' / ''பொருள்'') is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, , pp 55–56 T ...

kama ''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...

and

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...

. The Book of Poruḷ deals with polity, or virtues of an individual with respect to the surroundings, including the stately qualities of administration, wisdom, prudence, nobility, diplomacy, citizenship, geniality, industry, chastity, sobriety and teetotalism, that is expected of every individual, keeping ''aṟam'' or ''dharma'' as the base.

Etymology and meanings

''Poruḷ'' is the

word that corresponds to the

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

term 'artha', and ''pāl'' refers to 'division'. Similar to its cousins ''aṟam'' (

), ''inbam'' (

), and ''veedu'' (

), ''poruḷ'' as a concept includes multiple meanings, rendering it almost impossible to capture its meaning in a single word in any non-Indian language. The term ''artha'', however, is common to all Indian languages. As one of the four mutually non-exclusive aims of human life in Indian philosophy called the

Puruṣārtha ''Purushartha'' (Sanskrit: पुरुषार्थ, International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ) literally means "object(ive) of men".See:
Sanskrit English Dictionary
University of Kloen, Germany (2009) * Karl Potter (1998), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 3, , Motilal Banarsidass, pp 610 (note 17) ''Poruḷ'' is also a broader concept in the scriptures of

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

. As a concept, it has multiple meanings, all implying "means of life", activities and resources that enable one to be in a state one wants to be in. ''Poruḷ'' applies to both an individual and a government. In an individual's context, ''poruḷ'' includes wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. At government level, ''poruḷ'' includes social, legal, economic and worldly affairs. Proper pursuit of it is considered an important and necessary objective of both the individual and the government. John Lochtefeld describes ''artha'' as the means of life, and includes material prosperity. Karl Potter explains it as an attitude and capability that enables one to make a living, to remain alive, to thrive as a free person. It includes economic prosperity, security and health of oneself and those one feels responsible for.Scott Walsworth and Suresh Kalagnanam (2013), Applying the Hindu four stage life cycle model to human resource management, International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, Volume 6, Number 4, pp. 507–519 Artha includes everything in one's environment that allows one to live. It is neither an end state nor an endless goal of aimlessly amassing money, claims Karl Potter, rather it is an attitude and necessary requirement of human life. In a different viewpoint, John Koller suggests artha is not an attitude, rather it is one of the necessities of human life. A central premise of Hindu philosophy, claims Koller, is that every person should live a joyous and pleasurable life, that such fulfilling life requires every person's needs and desires be acknowledged and fulfilled, that needs can only be satisfied through activity and when sufficient means for those activities are available. Artha, then, is best described as pursuit of activities and means necessary for a joyous and pleasurable life.

Daya Krishna Daya Krishna (1924–2007) was an Indian philosopher. He was Pro Vice Chancellor of Rajasthan University and editor of the Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research for over three decades. He has published works in the fields of Indian ...

views artha as a subset of

and

karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...

. Vatsyayana in Kama Sutra defines ''artha'' as the acquisition of arts, land, cattle, wealth, equipages and friends. He explains, artha is also protection of what is already acquired, and the increase of what is protected.The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925)
The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana
University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8

Gavin Flood __NOTOC__ Gavin Dennis Flood (born 1954) is a British scholar of comparative religion specialising in Shaivism and phenomenology, but with research interests that span South Asian traditions. From October 2005 through December 2015, he served ...

explains artha as "worldly success" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), kama (love) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation). Flood clarifies that ''artha'' in ancient Hindu literature, as well as purushartha, is better understood as a goal of Man (not a man). In other words, it is one of the four purposes of human life. The survival and the thriving of humans requires artha—that is, economic activity, wealth and its creation, worldly success, profit, political success and all that is necessary for human existence. Medieval commentators such as

Pariperumal Pari Perumal (c. 11th century CE), also known as Kaviperumal, was a Tamil scholar and commentator known for his commentary on the '' Thirukkural''. He was among the canon of Ten Medieval Commentators of the Kural text most highly esteemed by scho ...

, Ilampooranar, and

Nacchinarkkiniyar __NOTOC__ Nacciṇārkkiṇiyar, also spelled Naccinarkkiniyar or Nachinarkiniyar, was a 14th-century Tamil and Sanskrit scholar famous for his commentaries on Sangam literature and post-Sangam medieval Tamil literature. His commentary on some of th ...

define ''porul'' as essential elements of a state. Pariperumal's definition to ''porul'' provides an overall synopsis to the chapters of the Book of Porul. According to S. N. Kandasamy, within the Kural literature the term ''poruḷ'' takes various meanings, including asset, meaning, possession, wealth, good result, virtue, quality, reality, deed, importance or essentiality, and good things. Kandasamy further states that despite all the vast variations in meaning, the term ''poruḷ'' primarily means the ultimate reality.

The book and its chapters

The Book of Poruḷ talks about the interpersonal skills of an individual that are essential to lead a meaningful life in the society. It covers both political and economic matters. With 70 chapters, the Book of Poruḷ is the largest of the three books of the Kural text. The chapters chiefly deal with polity and administration, including citizenship and social relations, in a manner similar to the Hindu text ''

Arthasastra The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is t ...

''. According to

Czech Czech may refer to: * Anything from or related to the Czech Republic, a country in Europe ** Czech language ** Czechs, the people of the area ** Czech culture ** Czech cuisine * One of three mythical brothers, Lech, Czech, and Rus' Places * Czech, ...

Indologist Indology, also known as South Asian studies, is the academic study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of the Indian subcontinent, and as such is a subset of Asian studies. The term ''Indology'' (in German, ''Indologie'') is o ...

Kamil Zvelebil Kamil Václav Zvelebil (November 17, 1927 – January 17, 2009) was a Czech scholar in Indian literature and linguistics, notably Tamil, Sanskrit, Dravidian linguistics and literature and philology. Life and career Zvelebil studied at the Char ...

, Valluvar "undoubtedly" bases some of his teachings in the Book of Poruḷ on the then extant Sanskrit works such as the ''Arthashastra''. The text insists on a royalty with ministers bound to a code of ethics and a system of justice rather than democracy. In the words of K. V. Nagarajan, the king, according to Valluvar, is assigned the "role of producing, acquiring, conserving, and dispensing wealth". The king's duty is to provide a just rule, be impartial and have courage in protecting his subjects and in meting out justice and punishment. Valluvar insists that an army has a duty to kill in battle, and a king must execute criminals for justice, but does so only after emphasizing non-killing as every individual's personal virtue in the

Book of Aṟam The Book of ''Aṟam'', in full ''Aṟattuppāl'' (Tamil: அறத்துப்பால், literally, "division of virtue"), also known as the Book of Virtue, the First Book or Book One in translated versions, is the first of the three book ...

. The book also cautions against tyranny, oppression and nepotism, with the suggestion that such royal behavior ultimately results in disasters, depletes the state's wealth and ultimately results in the loss of power and prosperity. The book, in a social and political context, recommends a death sentence for the wicked only as a means of justice. Valluvar presents his theory of state using six elements: army (''patai''), subjects (''kuti''), treasure (''kul''), ministers (''amaiccu''), allies (''natpu''), and forts (''aran''), recommending forts and other infrastructure, supplies and food storage in preparation for siege. A king and his army must always be ready for war, and should launch a violent offensive, at the right place and right time, when the situation so demands and particularly against corrupt kingdoms. A good and strong kingdom must be protected with forts made of thick, high and impenetrable walls. The text recommends a hierarchical military organization staffed with fearless soldiers who are willing to die in war. As with Books I and III of the Kural text, the author did not group the chapters under any subdivisions. However, the

ten medieval commentators The Ten Medieval Commentators (Tamil: உரையாசிரியர்கள் பதின்மர்) were a canonical group of Tamil scholars whose commentaries on the ancient Indian didactic work of the Kural are esteemed by later schol ...

, who were the first to write commentaries about the Tirukkural, divided the Book of Poruḷ variously between three and six portions. For example, while

Parimelalhagar Parimelalhagar ( ta, பரிமேலழகர்) (), sometimes spelled Parimelazhagar, born Vanduvarai Perumal, was a Tamil poet and scholar known for his commentary on the ''Thirukkural''. He was the last among the canon of ten medieval co ...

divides the book into three parts, namely, kingship (royalty), elements of sovereignty (''angas'' or limbs of the state) and common duties, other medieval scholars have divided the Book of Poruḷ into five or even six portions. ;Book Two—Wealth (பொருட்பால் ''Poruṭpāl'') * Chapter 39. The Greatness of a King (இறைமாட்சி ''iṟaimāṭci''): 381–390 * Chapter 40. Learning (கல்வி ''kalvi''): 391–400 * Chapter 41. Ignorance (கல்லாமை ''kallāmai''): 401–410 * Chapter 42. Hearing (கேள்வி ''kēḷvi''): 411–420 * Chapter 43. Knowledge Possession (அறிவுடைமை ''aṟivuṭaimai''): 421–430 * Chapter 44. Error Correction (குற்றங்கடிதல் ''kuṟṟaṅkaṭital''): 431–440 * Chapter 45. Seeking the Aid of Great Men (பெரியாரைத் துணைக்கோடல் ''periyārait tuṇaikkōṭal''): 441–450 * Chapter 46. Avoiding Mean Associations (சிற்றினஞ்சேராமை ''ciṟṟiṉañcērāmai''): 451–460 * Chapter 47. Acting after due Consideration (தெரிந்து செயல்வகை ''terintuceyalvakai''): 461–470 * Chapter 48. The Knowledge of Power (வலியறிதல் ''valiyaṟital''): 471–480 * Chapter 49. Knowledge of Apt Timing (காலமறிதல் ''kālamaṟital''): 481–490 * Chapter 50. Knowledge of Location (இடனறிதல் ''iṭaṉaṟital''): 491–500 * Chapter 51. Selection and Confidence (தெரிந்து தெளிதல் ''terintuteḷital''): 501–510 * Chapter 52. Selection and Employment (தெரிந்து வினையாடல் ''terintuviṉaiyāṭal''): 511–520 * Chapter 53. Cherishing One's Kindred (சுற்றந்தழால் ''cuṟṟantaḻāl''): 521–530 * Chapter 54. Unforgetfulness (பொச்சாவாமை ''poccāvāmai''): 531–540 * Chapter 55. The Right Sceptre (செங்கோன்மை ''ceṅkōṉmai''): 541–550 * Chapter 56. The Cruel Sceptre (கொடுங்கோன்மை ''koṭuṅkōṉmai''): 551–560 * Chapter 57. Absence of Terrorism (வெருவந்த செய்யாமை ''veruvantaceyyāmai''): 561–570 * Chapter 58. Benignity (கண்ணோட்டம் ''kaṇṇōṭṭam''): 571–580 * Chapter 59. Detectives (ஒற்றாடல் ''oṟṟāṭal''): 581–590 * Chapter 60. Energetics (ஊக்கமுடைமை ''ūkkamuṭaimai''): 591–600 * Chapter 61. Unsluggishness (மடியின்மை ''maṭiyiṉmai''): 601–610 * Chapter 62. Manly Effort (ஆள்வினையுடைமை ''āḷviṉaiyuṭaimai''): 611–620 * Chapter 63. Hopefulness in Trouble (இடுக்கண் அழியாமை ''iṭukkaṇ aḻiyāmai''): 621–630 * Chapter 64. Ministry of State (அமைச்சு ''amaiccu''): 631–640 * Chapter 65. Oratory (சொல்வன்மை ''colvaṉmai''): 641–650 * Chapter 66. Purity in Execution (வினைத்தூய்மை ''viṉaittūymai''): 651–660 * Chapter 67. Power in Execution (வினைத்திட்பம் ''viṉaittiṭpam''): 661–670 * Chapter 68. The Method of Execution (வினை செயல்வகை ''viṉaiceyalvakai''): 671–680 * Chapter 69. The Envoy (தூது ''tūtu''): 681–690 * Chapter 70. Conduct in the Presence of the King (மன்னரைச் சேர்ந்தொழுதல் ''maṉṉaraic cērntoḻutal''): 691–700 * Chapter 71. The Knowledge of Signals (குறிப்பறிதல் ''kuṟippaṟital''): 701–710 * Chapter 72. The Knowledge of the Council Chamber (அவையறிதல் ''avaiyaṟital''): 711–720 * Chapter 73. Dread avoidance (அவையஞ்சாமை ''avaiyañcāmai''): 721–730 * Chapter 74. The Land (நாடு ''nāṭu''): 731–740 * Chapter 75. The Fortification (அரண் ''araṇ''): 741–750 * Chapter 76. Wealth Accumulation (பொருள் செயல்வகை ''poruḷceyalvakai''): 751–760 * Chapter 77. The Excellence of an Army (படைமாட்சி ''paṭaimāṭci''): 761–770 * Chapter 78. Military Spirit (படைச்செருக்கு ''paṭaiccerukku''): 771–780 * Chapter 79. Friendship (நட்பு ''naṭpu''): 781–790 * Chapter 80. Investigation in Forming Friendships (நட்பாராய்தல் ''naṭpārāytal''): 791–800 * Chapter 81. Familiarity (பழைமை ''paḻaimai''): 801–810 * Chapter 82. Evil Friendship (தீ நட்பு ''tī naṭpu''): 811–820 * Chapter 83. Unreal Friendship (கூடா நட்பு ''kūṭānaṭpu''): 821–830 * Chapter 84. Folly (பேதைமை ''pētaimai''): 831–840 * Chapter 85. Ignorance (புல்லறிவாண்மை ''pullaṟivāṇmai''): 841–850 * Chapter 86. Hostility (இகல் ''ikal''): 851–860 * Chapter 87. The Might of Hatred (பகை மாட்சி ''pakaimāṭci''): 861–870 * Chapter 88. Recognizing the Quality of Enmity (பகைத்திறந்தெரிதல் ''pakaittiṟanterital''): 871–880 * Chapter 89. Internal Enmity (உட்பகை ''uṭpakai''): 881–890 * Chapter 90. Not Offending the Great (பெரியாரைப் பிழையாமை ''periyāraip piḻaiyāmai''): 891–900 * Chapter 91. Being led by Women (பெண்வழிச் சேறல் ''peṇvaḻiccēṟal''): 901–910 * Chapter 92. Wanton Women (வரைவின் மகளிர் ''varaiviṉmakaḷir''): 911–920 * Chapter 93. Abstinence from Liquor (கள்ளுண்ணாமை ''kaḷḷuṇṇāmai''): 921–930 * Chapter 94. Gaming (Gambling) (சூது ''cūtu''): 931–940 * Chapter 95. Medicine (மருந்து ): 941–950 * Chapter 96. Lineage (குடிமை ''kuṭimai''): 951–960 * Chapter 97. Honour (மானம் ''māṉam''): 961–970 * Chapter 98. Greatness (பெருமை ''perumai''): 971–980 * Chapter 99. Perfectness (சான்றாண்மை ''cāṉṟāṇmai''): 981–990 * Chapter 100. Courtesy (பண்புடைமை ''paṇpuṭaimai''): 991–1000 * Chapter 101. Wealth without Benefaction (நன்றியில் செல்வம் ''naṉṟiyilcelvam''): 1001–1010 * Chapter 102. Shame (நாணுடைமை ''nāṇuṭaimai''): 1011–1020 * Chapter 103. Family Maintenance (குடிசெயல்வகை ''kuṭiceyalvakai''): 1021–1030 * Chapter 104. Agriculture (உழவு ''uḻavu''): 1031–1040 * Chapter 105. Poverty (நல்குரவு ''nalkuravu''): 1041–1050 * Chapter 106. Mendicancy (இரவு ''iravu''): 1051–1060 * Chapter 107. The Dread of Mendicancy (இரவச்சம் ''iravaccam''): 1061–1070 * Chapter 108. Baseness (கயமை ''kayamai''): 1071–1080 In the Book of Poruḷ, the Kural literature appears not only as a book of lofty wisdom, but also as a book of "shrewd cunning," according to Zvelebil, still keeping the moral very empirical and pragmatic as with the rest of the work. The book is less virtuous than the Book of Aram and more diplomatic since it deals with various people in the society. Morals are presented only incidentally and sporadically except in the appendix consisting of the final 13 chapters. The initial chapters on royalty define the ideal sovereign, such as being well informed; keeping befitting company; not letting opportunities slide; using discretion in the choice of civil and military servants; holding a benign sceptre of gold firm yet popular, rather than of iron; and being ever active without any despair in affliction. The chapters on ministers of state deal with the qualifications of ministers, their conduct in the royal court, and their diplomacy. The chapters on the essentials of the state deal with the necessaries of a kingdom, handling international relationships, and virtuous tactics of warfare. There are also chapters that forbid evil conducts such as uxoriousness, harlotry, intoxication and gambling and a chapter on healthy living. The "appendix" chapters deal with both affirmative morality, such as honour, greatness, perfection, courtesy and self-reprobation, and negative morality, such as dread of poverty, mendicancy, dread of mendicancy and vileness.

Structural plan of the book

The Kural literature has a very distinct and a well-thought-out structural plan, giving the Kural couplets two different meaning, namely, a structural meaning (when read in relation to the whole) and a proverbial meaning (when read in isolation). This is more pronounced in the Book of Poruḷ, where the couplets, when read in relation to the whole, reveal that the Kural's ethics is entirely different from that of

Chanakya Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya o ...

or Machiavelli. The very order of the Book of Poruḷ within the Kural literature indicates that the public life of a person, which the Book of Poruḷ expounds, is discussed only after his or her inner, moral growth has been ensured by the

preceding it. In short, the entire structural meaning of the Book of Poruḷ emphasizes that only a cultured, civilized man, who is morally and spiritually ripe, is fit to enter public or political life.

Comparison with other ancient texts

The statecraft dealt with in the Book of Poruḷ has semblance with several ancient texts in the pan-Indian expanse such as the

Manusmriti The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...

Kautilya Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya o ...

Arthashastra The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...

, and Kamandaka's

Nitisara Nitisara () or the Nitisara of Kamandaki, is an ancient Indian treatise on politics and statecraft. It was authored by Kamandaka, also known as Kamandaki or Kamandakiya, who was a disciple of Chanakya. It is traditionally dated to the 4th-3rd ce ...

, to name a few. The codes of kingship, diplomacy, and citizenship found in the Book of Poruḷ share a common ground with these texts. However, the Book of Poruḷ remains unique in its attitudes and approaches. For example, as against the subtle statecraft found in Arthashastra, the ideas of governance and polity found in the Book of Poruḷ are based on a "moralistic and benevolent bedrock". By opposing Manusmriti's social order given in the form of a complex web of hierarchies and discriminations, the Book of Poruḷ suggests human brotherhood and oneness of humanity.

Comparison with the ''Arthashastra''

Despite several scholars trying to draw parallels between the economic concepts of Kautilya found in Arthashastra and those found in the Book of Porul, there seems to be no resemblance between the two. While Valluvar gives primary importance to agriculture in the Book of Porul, this is not the case in Arthashastra. While Kautilya suggests various taxes to raise the revenue of a government, including by means of intimidation and persuasion, Valluvar does not entertain this. Rather, he believes in taxation by consent. Kautilya's economic system is primarily based on caste, which is virtually absent in Valluvar's thought. Valluvar's economic system, on the other hand, is based on ethical principles, which are not found in the Arthashastra. While Kautilya allows exploiting the gullibility and religious beliefs of the subject, and even drinking and prostitution, as means to enriching the state's coffers, Valluvar denounces these as sins. While Kautilya writes about arts and artists, Valluvar strangely doesn’t touch upon the subject of arts and performance arts anywhere in the Kural text.

Translations

The Book of Porul is the second most translated book of the Kural literature after the Book of Aram, and most of the translators of the Kural text have translated the Book of Porul. Some of the earliest translations include those by Father Beschi,

Karl Graul Karl Graul (6 February 1814 – 10 November 1864) was a leader of Leipzig Lutheran mission and a Tamil scholar. He was born in a poor weaver family in Germany. He moved to India as the director of the Lutheran Leipzig Mission in 1849 and ther ...

, and

E. S. Ariel E. S. Ariel, also referred to as Monsieur Ariel ( French for "Mr. Ariel") by his contemporaries, was a 19th-century French translator known for his French translation of the ancient Indian philosophical text of the Tirukkural. He translated sel ...

. Beschi translated the book into

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

as "rerum proprietates". Graul translated it into Latin and

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ger ...

as "de bonis" and "vom Gute," respectively. Ariel translated it into French as "la fortune."

Influence

According to T. N. Hajela, Valluvar's thoughts on agriculture found in the Book of Poruḷ have influenced the Chola emperor

Karikala Karikala ( ta, கரிகால சோழன்) was a Tamil Chola Emperor who ruled southern India. He is credited with the construction of the flood banks of the river Kaveri. He is recognised as the greatest of the Early Cholas. Source ...

of the 1st century CE to undertake massive developmental measures for land reclamation, colonisation, construction of dams, and other agrarian reforms.

Notes

a. These various meanings of ''poruḷ'' come from couplets 63, 128, 141, 176, 178, 199, 371, 212, 247, 254, 307, 351, 423, 462, 583, 741, and 1046 of the Tirukkural. b. The idea that ''poruḷ'' means the "ultimate reality" comes from couplets 141 and 501 of the Tirukkural.

Citations

References

Primary sources (Tamil)

* Alathur Kilar, ''Kḻuvāi Illai!'', புறநானூறு uranānuru(Verse 34), See original text i
Tamil Virtual University
* *

Ilango Adigal Ilango Adigal ()() was a Jainism, Jain monk and a poet, sometimes identified as a Chera dynasty, Chera prince. He is traditionally credited as the author of ''Cilappatikaram'', one of the Five Great Epics of Ancient Tamil literature. He is one ...

, ''சிலப்பதிகாரம் ilappathigāram', See original text i
Tamil Virtual University
* Kambar, ''கம்பராமாயணம் ambarāmāyanam', See original text i
Tamil Virtual University
* * * Seethalai Sāthanār, ''மணிமேகலை animekalai', See original text i
Tamil Virtual University.
* Sekkiḻar, '' பெரிய‌ புராண‌ம் eriya Puranam', See original text i
Tamil Virtual University.
* See original text i
Project Madurai

Secondary sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

External links

Tirukkural: Work by Tiruvalluvar from Encyclopaedia Britannica
{{Tamil language Tirukkural