''Scorzonera hispanica'', commonly known as black salsify or Spanish salsify, also known as black oyster plant, serpent root, viper's herb, viper's grass or simply scorzonera, is a
perennial
A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...
member of the genus ''
Scorzonera
''Scorzonera'' is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Cichorieae within the family Asteraceae.[Asteraceae
The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae w ...]
), cultivated as a
root vegetable
Root vegetables are underground plant parts eaten by humans as food. Although botany distinguishes true roots (such as taproots and tuberous roots) from non-roots (such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers, although some contain both hypocotyl a ...
in the same way as purple salsify (''
Tragopogon porrifolius
''Tragopogon porrifolius'' is a plant cultivated for its ornamental flower and edible root. It also grows wild in many places and is one of the most widely known species of the salsify genus, '' Tragopogon''. It is commonly known as purple or ...
''), also in the sunflower family.
It is native to Southern Europe and cultivated as a crop in
Southern and
Central Europe
Central Europe is an area of Europe between Western Europe and Eastern Europe, based on a common historical, social and cultural identity. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) between Catholicism and Protestantism significantly shaped the area' ...
. It grows on nutrient poor soils, dry
pasture
Pasture (from the Latin ''pastus'', past participle of ''pascere'', "to feed") is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine ...
, rocky areas, in
thickets and on limy or marly soils of
temperate zones
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
.
Description
''Scorzonera hispanica'' is grown commercially as an
annual
Annual may refer to:
*Annual publication, periodical publications appearing regularly once per year
** Yearbook
** Literary annual
*Annual plant
*Annual report
*Annual giving
*Annual, Morocco, a settlement in northeastern Morocco
*Annuals (band), ...
, although it is a
biennial plant
A biennial plant is a flowering plant that, generally in a temperate climate, takes two years to complete its biological life cycle.
Life cycle
In its first year, the biennal plant undergoes primary growth, during which its vegetative structures ...
. After a vegetative phase in the first year, the plant flowers in its second year and can reach a height of 60cm with a stem diameter of 5 cm. The
hermaphroditic
In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes.
Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have separ ...
flowers are insect-pollinated.
The flower-head is terminal and consists of yellow ray
florets
This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to botany and plants in general. Terms of plant morphology are included here as well as at the more specific Glossary of plant morphology and Glossary o ...
. The stem is smooth and leafy and the leaves are
lanceolate
The following is a list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (a single leaf blade or lamina) or compound (with several leaflets). The edge of the leaf may be regular o ...
to
ovate
Ovate may refer to:
*Ovate (egg-shaped) leaves, tepals, or other botanical parts
*Ovate, a type of prehistoric stone hand axe
*Ovates, one of three ranks of membership in the Welsh Gorsedd
*Vates
In modern English, the nouns vates () and ovat ...
with entire margins.
Black salsify forms a long cylindrical
taproot
A taproot is a large, central, and dominant root from which other roots sprout laterally. Typically a taproot is somewhat straight and very thick, is tapering in shape, and grows directly downward. In some plants, such as the carrot, the taproo ...
with a brownish to black cork layer. If harvested young, the carrot-like roots are tender, long and tapered with shiny white flesh.
They contain a milky
latex
Latex is an emulsion (stable dispersion) of polymer microparticles in water. Latexes are found in nature, but synthetic latexes are common as well.
In nature, latex is found as a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms ...
, which turns the roots black when exposed to air.
History
Black salsify is native to
Southern Europe
Southern Europe is the southern regions of Europe, region of Europe. It is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is essentially marked by the Mediterranean Sea. Definitions of Southern Europe include some or all of these countrie ...
and the
Near East
The ''Near East''; he, המזרח הקרוב; arc, ܕܢܚܐ ܩܪܒ; fa, خاور نزدیک, Xāvar-e nazdik; tr, Yakın Doğu is a geographical term which roughly encompasses a transcontinental region in Western Asia, that was once the hist ...
.
As is indicated by its
binomial name
In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, bot ...
, it is generally thought to have spread to the rest of Europe from
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
, but the first mention of the vegetable by a Western writer came from
Rudolf Leonhard
Rudolf Leonhard (27 October 1889, in Lissa, German Empire (today Leszno, Poland) – 19 December 1953, in East Berlin) was a German author and communist activist.
Life
Leonhard came from a family of lawyers and studied law and Philology in Berli ...
, who reported seeing scorzonera at the market of
Aleppo
)), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black".
, motto =
, image_map =
, mapsize =
, map_caption =
, image_map1 =
...
in
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, in 1575. It is often claimed that the name of the genus ''Scorzonera'' derives from the
Old French
Old French (, , ; Modern French: ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France from approximately the 8th to the 14th centuries. Rather than a unified language, Old French was a linkage of Romance dialects, mutually intelligib ...
word ''scorzon'' meaning snake (or "adder" to be exact), which seems likely given a widespread belief that the plant makes a good antidote against bites of venomous snakes. Alternatively, the name could be derived from the Italian "scorza negra" meaning "black bark"/"black peel" and indicating the dark brown to black skin of the root. The
Celt
The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancient ...
ic and
Germanic peoples are believed to have eaten the black salsify, which was considered efficacious against the
bubonic plague
Bubonic plague is one of three types of plague caused by the plague bacterium (''Yersinia pestis''). One to seven days after exposure to the bacteria, flu-like symptoms develop. These symptoms include fever, headaches, and vomiting, as well a ...
and
snake bite
A snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake, especially a venomous snake. A common sign of a bite from a venomous snake is the presence of two puncture wounds from the animal's fangs. Sometimes venom injection from the bite may oc ...
s until the 16th century.
The plant was being cultivated as a vegetable in
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
and
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
by 1660 and, soon after, vast fields were grown of it in what is now
Belgium
Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
.
Nutritional value
The black salsify is considered
nutritious
Nutrition is the biochemical and physiological process by which an organism uses food to support its life. It provides organisms with nutrients, which can be metabolized to create energy and chemical structures. Failure to obtain sufficient nu ...
: it contains
protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...
s,
fat
In nutrition science, nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such chemical compound, compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.
The term often refers spec ...
s,
asparagine
Asparagine (symbol Asn or N) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated −NH form under biological conditions), an α-carboxylic acid group (which is in the depro ...
,
choline Choline is an essential nutrient for humans and many other animals. Choline occurs as a cation that forms various salts (X− in the depicted formula is an undefined counteranion). Humans are capable of some ''de novo synthesis'' of choline but re ...
, laevulin, as well as minerals such as
potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K (from Neo-Latin ''kalium'') and atomic number19. Potassium is a silvery-white metal that is soft enough to be cut with a knife with little force. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmosphe ...
,
calcium
Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to ...
,
phosphorus
Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Ear ...
,
iron
Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in f ...
,
sodium
Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na (from Latin ''natrium'') and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table. Its only stable iso ...
, and
vitamin
A vitamin is an organic molecule (or a set of molecules closely related chemically, i.e. vitamers) that is an Nutrient#Essential nutrients, essential micronutrient that an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its ...
s A, B
1, E and C. It also contains the
polysaccharide
Polysaccharides (), or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food. They are long chain polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages. This carbohydrate can react with wa ...
inulin
Inulins are a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides produced by many types of plants, industrially most often extracted from chicory. The inulins belong to a class of dietary fibers known as fructans. Inulin is used by some plants as a mea ...
, conferring a mild sweetness that is suitable for
diabetic
Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level (hyperglycemia) over a prolonged period of time. Symptoms often include frequent urination, increased thirst and increased app ...
s.
Inulin, used as a
dietary fibre
Dietary fiber (in British English fibre) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by the ...
, may have a positive effect on the
digestive system
The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller compone ...
,
blood circulation
The blood circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the entire body of a human or other vertebrate. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, tha ...
,
kidneys
The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped organs found in vertebrates. They are located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about in length. They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood ...
and inhibit cancerous processes.
Preparation
Various parts of the Black Salsify plant can be consumed, including roots, leafy shoots, and open flowers, either cooked or raw.
The principal product however are the stem tuber roots.
The thick black skin of the salsify root is usually considered inedible and can be removed either prior to or after
boiling
Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere. Th ...
. If the skin is removed prior to boiling, the peeled root should be immediately immersed in water mixed with vinegar or lemon juice, in order to prevent discolouring. Since the root contains an extremely sticky
latex
Latex is an emulsion (stable dispersion) of polymer microparticles in water. Latexes are found in nature, but synthetic latexes are common as well.
In nature, latex is found as a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms ...
, it is often more convenient to peel it after boiling the root for 20 to 25 minutes (or less). Residue of the latex can be removed by rubbing with a drop of oil and then washing with soap.
Black salsify is often eaten together with other vegetables, such as
peas
The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the flowering plant species ''Pisum sativum''. Each pod contains several peas, which can be green or yellow. Botanically, pea pods are fruit, since they contain seeds and d ...
and
carrots
The carrot (''Daucus carota'' subsp. ''sativus'') is a root vegetable, typically orange in color, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist, all of which are domesticated forms of the wild carrot, ''Daucus carota'', nativ ...
. But it is also popular served like asparagus in a white
sauce
In cooking, a sauce is a liquid, cream, or semi-solid food, served on or used in preparing other foods. Most sauces are not normally consumed by themselves; they add flavor, moisture, and visual appeal to a dish. ''Sauce'' is a French word t ...
, such as
bechamel sauce,
mustard sauce
Mustard is a condiment made from the seeds of a mustard plant (white/yellow mustard, '' Sinapis alba''; brown mustard, ''Brassica juncea''; or black mustard, ''Brassica nigra'').
The whole, ground, cracked, or bruised mustard seeds are mixed ...
or
hollandaise sauce
Hollandaise sauce ( or ; ), also called Dutch sauce, is a mixture of egg yolk, melted butter, and lemon juice (or a white wine or vinegar reduction). It is usually seasoned with salt, and either white pepper or cayenne pepper.
It is well known a ...
. Boiled salsify roots may also be coated with
batter and
deep fried
Deep frying (also referred to as deep fat frying) is a cooking method in which food is submerged in hot fat, traditionally lard but today most commonly oil, as opposed to the shallow oil used in conventional frying done in a frying pan. Normal ...
.
The young roots are used in salads and the salsify latex can be used as
chewing gum
Chewing gum is a soft, cohesive substance designed to be chewed without being swallowed. Modern chewing gum is composed of gum base, sweeteners, softeners/plasticizers, flavors, colors, and, typically, a hard or powdered polyol coating. Its te ...
.
Flowering shoots are consumed similarly to
asparagus
Asparagus, or garden asparagus, folk name sparrow grass, scientific name ''Asparagus officinalis'', is a perennial flowering plant species in the genus ''Asparagus''. Its young shoots are used as a spring vegetable.
It was once classified in ...
and the flowers can be added to salads, together with brown seedlings or the long clumps of grass-like green leaves.
The scorzonera sweet is a crystallized dessert made from scorzonera in
Évora
Évora ( , ) is a city and a municipality in Portugal. It has 53,591 inhabitants (2021), in an area of 1307.08 km2. It is the historic capital of the Alentejo and serves as the seat of the Évora District.
Due to its well-preserved old to ...
,
Alentejo
Alentejo ( , ) is a geographical, historical, and cultural region of south–central and southern Portugal. In Portuguese, its name means "beyond () the Tagus river" (''Tejo'').
Alentejo includes the regions of Alto Alentejo and Baixo Alent ...
,
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
. It is listed on the
Ark of Taste
The Ark of Taste is an international catalogue of endangered heritage foods which is maintained by the global Slow Food movement. The Ark is designed to preserve at-risk foods that are sustainably produced, unique in taste, and part of a distinct ...
.
Scorzonera sweet
Slow Food Foundation
Cultivation
Black salsify is hitherto mainly a European crop. Belgium
Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
, France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
and the Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
are the world's largest producers of black salsify; significant amounts are also produced in Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
. In the latter country, 'Hoffmanns Schwarzer Pfahl' is a cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...
widely used by commercial growers, while 'Duplex' is popular among small-scale gardeners. Some other cultivars are commercially available, but because it was a rather localized crop before being produced for a wider market there are comparatively few landrace
A landrace is a domesticated, locally adapted, often traditional variety of a species of animal or plant that has developed over time, through adaptation to its natural and cultural environment of agriculture and pastoralism, and due to isolation ...
s. Collections of local races and old cultivars can be found at the Nordic Genetic Resource Center
The Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NordGen; Scandinavian: Nordiskt Genresurscenter) is a plant, farm animal and forest conservation, gene resource guardian, and sustainable use organization under and primarily financed by the Nordic Council of M ...
in Sweden and the Vavilov Vavilov (russian: Вави́лов) is a Russian surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Andrey Petrovich Vavilov (b. 1961), Russian politician and businessman
* Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943), Russian geneticist
* Sergey Ivanovich Vavi ...
Institute of Plant-Genetic Resources in Russia.
Cultivars
Black salsify cultivars differ in taste, size, region of origin and harvest time. The following table shows some popular examples.
Breeding objectives are reduced susceptibility to bolting, low percentage of roots with cavities, improved suitability for mechanical sowing and harvesting, as well as for industrial processing.
Sowing
Scorzonera is sown in early spring, preferably at the end of April. Sowing too early can result in early flowering and loss of yield. About 12kg of seeds
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosperm pl ...
per hectare are required. The seeds are sown directly into shallow furrows
A plough or plow ( US; both ) is a farm tool for loosening or turning the soil before sowing seed or planting. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by oxen and horses, but in modern farms are drawn by tractors. A plough may have a wooden, iron or ...
at a depth of 1.5 - 2cm with 30-50cm in between them. Plants should stand at a density of 50 plants/m2 for optimal yield. Because of the seeds’ unusual shape, machine sowing is difficult. Storage of seeds is also a critical point, as germination
Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore. The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of fungi, fer ...
is usually only guaranteed for 1-2 years. Optimal storage conditions are dry and cool.
Soil requirements
The roots develop best in very light textured, sandy soil
Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Some scientific definitions distinguish ''dirt'' from ''soil'' by restricting the former te ...
. Any stones or gravel in the ground can cause root deformation. Ideal pH values are between 5.8 – 6.5 and liming is recommended for more acidic soils. A high humus
In classical soil science, humus is the dark organic matter in soil that is formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter. It is a kind of soil organic matter. It is rich in nutrients and retains moisture in the soil. Humus is the Lati ...
content is beneficial. Generally, the species can grow in a variety of conditions and has potential to be grown as a cash crop
A cash crop or profit crop is an Agriculture, agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm. The term is used to differentiate marketed crops from staple crop (or "subsistence crop") ...
in less favorable, marginal environments in temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
zones.
Harvesting and post-harvest treatment
Harvesting
Harvesting is the process of gathering a ripe crop from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, or reaper. On smaller farms with minimal mechanization, harvesting is the most labor-i ...
takes place from November to March, with the optimum time for high quality being end of December. The process is somewhat complicated, as the roots are quite fragile, and broken material loses its freshness. Entire roots will keep fresh all winter if stored in a cool dark place, due to their robust black cork
Cork or CORK may refer to:
Materials
* Cork (material), an impermeable buoyant plant product
** Cork (plug), a cylindrical or conical object used to seal a container
***Wine cork
Places Ireland
* Cork (city)
** Metropolitan Cork, also known as G ...
y skin. In root cellar
A root cellar (American English), fruit cellar (Mid-Western American English) or earth cellar (British English) is a structure, usually underground. or partially underground, used for storage of vegetables, fruits, nuts, or other foods. Its na ...
s they may keep fresh well into springtime. The roots can also be washed, peeled, cut and then frozen. In supermarkets, they can be bought conserved in glass or canned. On farmer’s markets, the roots are sold unwashed to secure quality and freshness. Black salsify is, however, very hardy and frost-resistant and will grow well in most cool-temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
climates and usually yield 15–20 tonne
The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1000 kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the short ton ( United State ...
s of roots per hectare
The hectare (; SI symbol: ha) is a non-SI metric unit of area equal to a square with 100-metre sides (1 hm2), or 10,000 m2, and is primarily used in the measurement of land. There are 100 hectares in one square kilometre. An acre is a ...
. In British gardens it is common to profit from its perennial character by leaving it in the ground until its roots have grown to sufficient size for harvesting; this can take two years. Commercially, it can be grown best as the year's second crop. It is recommended to have three to four years in the crop rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different types of crops in the same area across a sequence of growing seasons. It reduces reliance on one set of nutrients, pest and weed pressure, and the probability of developing resistant ...
before the cultivation of other Asteraceae
The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae w ...
.
Pests and diseases
Pests
* Carrot rust fly (''Psila rosae''): The larvae or maggots of the carrot rust fly eat the plant roots and entrench themselves in the roots. ''Psila'' thereby inhibits plant growth and facilitates infection by soft-rot bacteria. Generally root crops are popular for the carrot rust fly.
* Wireworms (''Selatosomus destructor and Ctenicera pruinina''): The wireworms are the larvae of click beetles, which remain in the larval stage for between 2-5 years. They live in the soil and feed on roots. The wireworms cause a lot of damage when they bore directly into the roots. Plant pathogens can gain access through this, which can lead to rotting of the roots. Root rot can lead to wilting, stunting and deformation of the seedlings and eventually to death.
* Root knot nematode (''Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica, M. hapla and M. arenaria''): Can cause great damage to the roots of salsify. Nematode activity damages growing root tips, causing branching, distortion, stunting and deformation of the taproot. The result can be general stunting, wilting and leaf chlorosis (yellowing) above ground.
Diseases
* Bacterial soft rot
Bacterial soft rots are caused by several types of bacteria, but most commonly by species of gram-negative bacteria, ''Erwinia'', '' Pectobacterium'', and ''Pseudomonas''. It is a destructive disease of fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals found wo ...
(''Bacillus carotovorus'' Jones): The bacteria eat the root core. This can be recognised by a soft, watery and slimy root rot. This in turn facilitates infection by vertical fungi or bacteria. The ideal temperature for bacterial soft rot is 21°C - 27°C, but it can survive and cause damage at temperatures between 0°C - 32°C. For this reason, the air must be properly ventilated when storing and transporting the crop in tropical and warm environments.
* White blister (''Albugo species''): a leaf disease that favours wet weather. It is related to the pathogens of downy mildew and the two can also occur together. White blisters form blister-like white pustules on the underside of the leaves. A purple pigmentation is visible around the affected areas. This reduces plant growth and heavily infested plant parts may shrivel or even die.
References
{{Taxonbar, from=Q385259
Cichorieae
Flora of Europe
Root vegetables
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus