The black-and-white warbler (''Mniotilta varia'') is a species of
New World warbler
The New World warblers or wood-warblers are a group of small, often colorful, passerine birds that make up the family Parulidae and are restricted to the New World. They are not closely related to Old World warblers or Australian warblers. Most ...
, and the only member of its genus, ''Mniotilta''.
It breeds in northern and eastern
North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
and winters in Florida,
Central America
Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
, and the
West Indies
The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greater A ...
down to
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal
, national_motto = "Fi ...
. This species is a very rare vagrant to western
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
.
[
Relative to other New World warblers, it is not well studied.]
Description
The black-and-white warbler is to in length with a mass of to grams. Wingspan ranges from 7.1-8.7 in (18-22 cm).
True to their name, black-and-white warblers are black and white in colour. Both sexes have black and white crowns with a white eyebrow, black streaking on a white belly, black wings with two white wing bars, a black tail, a black-and-white streaked back, streaky undertail coverts, and grey-black legs and feet. Breeding males have a black-and-white streaked throat and black cheek, while females have a grey cheek and a white-cream coloured throat and sides. First fall males are very similar to adult females in colour and patterning, while first fall females resemble to adult females but with less streaking and a more noticeable buffy wash. Juveniles are heavily spotted, and are similar to first fall individuals otherwise.
This species is long and weighs . The summer male black-and-white warbler is boldly streaked in black and white, and the bird has been described as a flying humbug
A humbug is a person or object that behaves in a deceptive or dishonest way, often as a hoax or in jest. The term was first described in 1751 as student slang, and recorded in 1840 as a "nautical phrase". It is now also often used as an exclama ...
. Each wing is black with two white wing bars. Female and juvenile plumages are similar, but duller and less streaky than males.
This warbler can be confused with the blackpoll warbler
The blackpoll warbler (''Setophaga striata'') is a New World warbler. Breeding males are mostly black and white. They have a prominent black cap, white cheeks and white wing bars. The blackpoll breeds in forests of northern North America, from Ala ...
(''Setophaga striata''). The blackpoll warbler is also black and white in its summer plumage, but has a solid black cap. The black-and-white warbler can also be confused behaviourally with the pine warbler
The pine warbler (''Setophaga pinus'') is a small songbird of the New World warbler family.
Description
These birds have white bellies, two white wing bars, dark legs and thin, relatively long pointed bills; they have yellowish 'spectacles' a ...
(''Setophaga pinus'') and yellow-throated warbler
The yellow-throated warbler (''Setophaga dominica'') is a small migratory songbird species breeding in temperate North America. It belongs to the New World warbler family (Parulidae).
Description
In summer, male yellow-throated warblers displ ...
(''Setophaga dominica'').
Taxonomy
Linnaeus described the black-and-white warbler (''Mniotilta varia'') in 1766. This warbler is a species of New World warbler or wood warbler (family Parulidae
The New World warblers or wood-warblers are a group of small, often colorful, passerine birds that make up the family Parulidae and are restricted to the New World. They are not closely related to Old World warblers or Australian warblers. Most ...
), and is the only member of its genus due to its unique foraging adaptations.
It is known to hybridize with the cerulean warbler
The cerulean warbler (''Setophaga cerulea'') is a small songbird in the family Parulidae. It is a long-distance migrant, breeding in eastern North American hardwood forests. In the non-breeding season, it winters on the eastern slope of the And ...
(''Setophaga cerulea'') and Blackburnian warbler
The Blackburnian warbler (''Setophaga fusca'') is a small New World warbler. They breed in eastern North America, from southern Canada, westwards to the southern Canadian Prairies, the Great Lakes region and New England, to North Carolina.
...
(''Setophaga fusca''). The black-and-white warbler is thought to be closely related to the genus ''Setophaga
''Setophaga'' is a genus of birds of the New World warbler family Parulidae. It contains at least 33 species. The males in breeding plumage are often highly colorful. The ''Setophaga'' warblers are an example of adaptive radiation with the vario ...
''.
No subspecies are known.
Etymology
The genus name comes from the Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic peri ...
, meaning "seaweed", and , "to pluck". Vieillot
Louis Pierre Vieillot (10 May 1748, Yvetot – 24 August 1830, Sotteville-lès-Rouen) was a French ornithologist.
Vieillot is the author of the first scientific descriptions and Linnaean names of a number of birds, including species he collect ...
mistranslated the first word, as "moss". The specific ''varia'' is from the Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, meaning "variegated".
Habitat and distribution
The black-and-white warbler is a migratory species, breeding in North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
and wintering in North and South America
South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...
. It is typically found in deciduous forest in its breeding range, but becomes more of a habitat generalist in the non-breeding season.
Habitat
The black-and-white warbler occupies a broad niche, and is found in a variety of habitats.
In its breeding habitat, it prefers mature forest, but will occupy successional and second growth forest. Preferred forest types include deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and Botany, the term ''deciduous'' () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
and mixed forest, and this warbler sometimes occupies swampy forest.
During migration, this species prefers forest to other land cover types and is frequently found in riparian
A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the terrestrial biomes of the Earth. Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks ar ...
areas.
In its wintering habitat, it can be found in a variety of land cover types, from mangroves to wet, dry, and cloud forest. It occupies both successional and mature forest. It has also been noted to winter in shade coffee plantations and gardens.
Males are territorial in both their summer and winter habitats.
Distribution
The black-and-white warbler breeds in northern and eastern North America. It ranges from the Northwest Territories
The Northwest Territories (abbreviated ''NT'' or ''NWT''; french: Territoires du Nord-Ouest, formerly ''North-Western Territory'' and ''North-West Territories'' and namely shortened as ''Northwest Territory'') is a federal territory of Canada. ...
to the northwest and Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador (; french: Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador; frequently abbreviated as NL) is the easternmost province of Canada, in the country's Atlantic region. The province comprises the island of Newfoundland and the continental region ...
to the northeast, to North Carolina
North Carolina () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the 28th largest and 9th-most populous of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Georgia and So ...
to the southeast and Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...
to the southwest. This species is migratory, wintering in Florida
Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
, Central America
Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
, and northern South America down to Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal
, national_motto = "Fi ...
. The IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
estimates the extent of occurrence, or range, to be 11,500,000 km2.
This species occurs as a vagrant in Iceland
Iceland ( is, Ísland; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Arctic Ocean. Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Iceland's capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which (along with its s ...
, Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
, Faeroes
The Faroe Islands ( ), or simply the Faroes ( fo, Føroyar ; da, Færøerne ), are a North Atlantic island group and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.
They are located north-northwest of Scotland, and about halfway betwee ...
, and the UK.
Conservation status
The IUCN classifies the black-and-white warbler as Least Concern due to its large range and population size. However, its population is decreasing. Habitat loss
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
and degradation, especially forest fragmentation, are the main factors contributing to the species’ decline. If habitat loss
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
continues, in either or both summer or wintering habitat, the species may continue to decline in the future. Pesticides such as fenitrothion
Fenitrothion (IUPAC name: ''O'',''O''-dimethyl ''O''-(3-methyl-4-nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate) is a phosphorothioate (organophosphate) insecticide that is inexpensive and widely used worldwide. Trade names include ''Sumithion'', a 94.2% solution ...
and phosphamidon have contributed to the species’ decline in the 1970s, and others such as chlorinated hydrocarbons may continue to have an effect.
Behaviour
Vocalization
The black-and-white warbler has a high-pitched song, described as a repeating that is repeated at least 6 times in succession. It has a ''chip'' call as well as a call that is sometimes given in flight''.''
Its song is a high or . It has two calls, a hard and a soft, thin .
Diet
This bird feeds on insect
Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs ...
s and spider
Spiders ( order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species ...
s, and, unlike other warblers, forages like a nuthatch
The nuthatches () constitute a genus, ''Sitta'', of small passerine birds belonging to the family Sittidae. Characterised by large heads, short tails, and powerful bills and feet, nuthatches advertise their territory using loud, simple songs. Mo ...
, moving up and down tree trunks and along branches.
The black-and-white warbler feeds in a manner similar to a nuthatch or a creeper. It forages on tree trunks and limbs to feed on insects below the bark's surface. Its short legs and long hind toe are adaptations to this foraging method. The black-and-white warbler is unique among warblers in its time spent foraging on tree trunks and inner branches. This bird also gleans, like many warblers, for insects. Its diet is composed of insects and other arthropods, including lepidoptera
Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
n larvae, beetles, ants, and spiders. During migration and breeding, this warbler relies heavily on lepidopteran larvae.
During migration, the black-and-white warbler sometimes joins mixed flocks to feed.
Reproduction
It breeds in broadleaved or mixed forest, preferably in wetter areas. Black-and-white warblers nest on the ground, laying 4–5 eggs in a cup nest.
The black-and-white warbler is of the first warblers to arrive to its spring breeding grounds. In the southernmost range of its breeding habitat, it can begin breeding mid-April. Males are territorial and defend their territory, both by singing and chasing competitors away. When a female arrives in a male's territory, he pursues her in an effort to breed. The male may display by flapping his wings.
The nest is cup-shaped, often located on the ground among roots or against a tree, or in crevices on tree stumps. The species prefers to nest in damp areas. The nest is constructed with grassy material, bark, and dry leaves, and lined with softer material such as moss and hair. The female is responsible for most of the nest-building. The female lays 4-5 eggs, which are light brown and speckled with darker brown. The female begins incubating once the last or second-to-last egg is laid. Incubation lasts 10 to 12 days, and is done solely by the female. During incubation, the female is sometimes fed by the male.
Both parents care for the nestlings. The young fledge after 8 to 12 days, and stay around the nest while they improve their flight ability. During this time, the parents remain nearby.
This species generally produces one brood per year.
Black-and-white warbler nests are sometimes parasitized by the brown-headed cowbird
The brown-headed cowbird (''Molothrus ater'') is a small, obligate brood parasitic icterid native to temperate and subtropical North America. It is a permanent resident in the southern parts of its range; northern birds migrate to the southern ...
(''Molothrus ater'').
Gallery
File:Black-and-white-warbler-109a.jpg,
File:Black and white warbler.jpg,
File: Black-and-white_Warbler_Tex.jpg,
References
External links
Black-and-white warbler (''Mniotilta varia'')
– USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
– Cornell Lab of Ornithology
at bird-stamps.org
Black-and-white warbler vocalizations
at Florida Museum of Natural History
*
*
Black-and-white warbler sounds
Macaulay Library
{{Taxonbar, from=Q669888
black-and-white warbler
The black-and-white warbler (''Mniotilta varia'') is a species of New World warbler, and the only member of its genus, ''Mniotilta''.
It breeds in northern and eastern North America and winters in Florida, Central America, and the West Indies ...
Birds of North America
Birds of the Caribbean
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Birds of Central America
Birds of South America
black-and-white warbler
The black-and-white warbler (''Mniotilta varia'') is a species of New World warbler, and the only member of its genus, ''Mniotilta''.
It breeds in northern and eastern North America and winters in Florida, Central America, and the West Indies ...
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Extant Late Pleistocene first appearances