
A biome () is a distinct
geographical region with specific
climate
Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteoro ...
,
vegetation
Vegetation is an assemblage of plants and the ground cover they provide. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular Taxon, taxa, life forms, structure, Spatial ecology, spatial extent, or any other specific Botany, botanic ...
, and
animal life. It consists of a biological
community
A community is a social unit (a group of people) with a shared socially-significant characteristic, such as place, set of norms, culture, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given g ...
that has formed in response to its physical environment and regional
climate
Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteoro ...
. In 1935,
Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ''
ecosystem
An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by Organism, organisms in interaction with their Biophysical environment, environment. The Biotic material, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and en ...
''. The
International Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.
However, in some contexts, the term ''biome'' is used in a different manner. In German literature, particularly in the
Walter
Walter may refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Walter (name), including a list of people and fictional and mythical characters with the given name or surname
* Little Walter, American blues harmonica player Marion Walter Jacobs (1930–19 ...
terminology, the term is used similarly as ''
biotope
A biotope is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage of flora (plants), plants and fauna (animals), animals. ''Biotope'' is almost synonymous with the term habitat (ecology), "habitat", which ...
'' (a concrete geographical unit), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology—irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name—and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determined by climate zone, altitude or soil).
In the Brazilian literature, the term ''biome'' is sometimes used as a synonym of ''
biogeographic province'', an area based on
species composition
Relative species abundance is a component of biodiversity and is a measure of how common or rare a species is relative to other species in a defined location or community.Hubbell, S. P. 2001. ''The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeog ...
(the term ''
floristic province'' being used when plant species are considered), or also as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of
Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both include many biomes in fact.
Classifications
To divide the world into a few ecological zones is difficult, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other. Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that predominate in them.
A 1978 study on North American
grasslands
A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge ( Cyperaceae) and rush ( Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur ...
found a positive
logistic correlation between
evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) refers to the combined processes which move water from the Earth's surface (open water and ice surfaces, bare soil and vegetation) into the Atmosphere of Earth, atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of w ...
in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m
2/yr. The general results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary production, while
solar irradiation and temperature lead to below-ground primary production (roots), and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit. These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge's bioclassification scheme (see below), which were then later simplified by Whittaker. The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the classification schemes created.
Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones
In 1947, the American botanist and climatologist
Leslie Holdridge
Leslie Ransselaer Holdridge (September 29, 1907 – June 19, 1999) was an American botanist and climatologist.
Career
In his famous 1947 paper, he defined "life zones" using three indicators:
# Mean annual biotemperature (average temperature ...
classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and
rainfall
Rain is a form of precipitation where water droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. ...
on
vegetation
Vegetation is an assemblage of plants and the ground cover they provide. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular Taxon, taxa, life forms, structure, Spatial ecology, spatial extent, or any other specific Botany, botanic ...
under the assumption that these two
abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called "humidity provinces", which are clearly visible in his diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that these were important.
Allee (1949) biome-types
The principal biome-types by Allee (1949):
*
Tundra
In physical geography, a tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are three regions and associated types of tundra: #Arctic, Arctic, Alpine tundra, Alpine, and #Antarctic ...
*
Taiga
Taiga or tayga ( ; , ), also known as boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches. The taiga, or boreal forest, is the world's largest land biome. In North A ...
*
Deciduous forest
In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, after flo ...
*
Grassland
A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominance (ecology), dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover, and other Herbaceo ...
s
*
Desert
A desert is a landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions create unique biomes and ecosystems. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to denudation. About one-third of the la ...
*
High plateaus
*
Tropical forest
Tropical forests are forested ecoregions with tropical climates – that is, land areas approximately bounded by the Tropic of Cancer, tropics of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, Capricorn, but possibly affected by other factors such as prevailing ...
*
Minor terrestrial biomes
Kendeigh (1961) biomes
The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):
* ''Terrestrial''
**
Temperate deciduous forest
**
Coniferous forest
Conifers () are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single extant class, Pinopsida. All e ...
**
Woodland
A woodland () is, in the broad sense, land covered with woody plants (trees and shrubs), or in a narrow sense, synonymous with wood (or in the U.S., the '' plurale tantum'' woods), a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunli ...
**
Chaparral
Chaparral ( ) is a shrubland plant plant community, community found primarily in California, southern Oregon, and northern Baja California. It is shaped by a Mediterranean climate (mild wet winters and hot dry summers) and infrequent, high-intens ...
**
Tundra
In physical geography, a tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are three regions and associated types of tundra: #Arctic, Arctic, Alpine tundra, Alpine, and #Antarctic ...
**
Grassland
A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominance (ecology), dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover, and other Herbaceo ...
**
Desert
A desert is a landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions create unique biomes and ecosystems. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to denudation. About one-third of the la ...
**
Tropical savanna
**
Tropical forest
Tropical forests are forested ecoregions with tropical climates – that is, land areas approximately bounded by the Tropic of Cancer, tropics of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, Capricorn, but possibly affected by other factors such as prevailing ...
* Marine
**
Ocean
The ocean is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of Earth. The ocean is conventionally divided into large bodies of water, which are also referred to as ''oceans'' (the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Indian, Southern Ocean ...
ic
plankton
Plankton are the diverse collection of organisms that drift in Hydrosphere, water (or atmosphere, air) but are unable to actively propel themselves against ocean current, currents (or wind). The individual organisms constituting plankton are ca ...
and
nekton
** Balanoid-gastropod-
thallophyte
**
Pelecypod-
annelid
The annelids (), also known as the segmented worms, are animals that comprise the phylum Annelida (; ). The phylum contains over 22,000 extant species, including ragworms, earthworms, and leeches. The species exist in and have adapted to vario ...
**
Coral reef
A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in group ...
Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types
Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature. His scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge's; more readily accessible, but missing Holdridge's greater specificity.
Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He had previously compiled a review of biome classifications.
Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme
*
Physiognomy
Physiognomy () or face reading is the practice of assessing a person's character or personality from their outer appearance—especially the face. The term can also refer to the general appearance of a person, object, or terrain without referenc ...
: sometimes referring to the plants' appearance; or the biome's apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species – including plants.
* Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities.
*
Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.
* Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined by physiognomy.
* Formation-type: a grouping of convergent formations.
Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when applied to
plant communities
A plant community is a collection or Association (ecology), association of plant species within a designated geographical unit, which forms a relatively uniform patch, distinguishable from neighboring patches of different vegetation types. The comp ...
only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittaker's convention of biome-type or formation-type is a broader method to categorize similar communities.
Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types
Whittaker used what he called "gradient analysis" of
ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.
# Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide
# Climatic moisture gradient
# Temperature gradient by altitude
# Temperature gradient by latitude
Along these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that allowed him to qualitatively establish biome-types:
* The gradient runs from favorable to the extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity.
* Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists (decreasing community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment becomes less favorable).
* Trends in the diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments.
* Each growth-form (i.e. grasses, shrubs, etc.) has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines.
* The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world.
Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4) to get an overall temperature gradient and combined this with a gradient (2), the moisture gradient, to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker classification scheme. The scheme graphs average annual precipitation (x-axis) versus average annual temperature (y-axis) to classify biome-types.
Biome-types
#
Tropical rainforest
Tropical rainforests are dense and warm rainforests with high rainfall typically found between 10° north and south of the Equator. They are a subset of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28° latitudes (in the torrid zo ...
#
Tropical seasonal rainforest
#*
deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed Leaf, leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
#*
semideciduous
#
Temperate giant rainforest
#
Montane rainforest
#
Temperate deciduous forest
#
Temperate evergreen forest
#*
needleleaf
#*
sclerophyll
Sclerophyll is a type of vegetation that is adapted to long periods of dryness and heat. The plants feature hard leaves, short Internode (botany), internodes (the distance between leaves along the stem) and leaf orientation which is parallel or ...
# Subarctic-subalpine needle-leaved forests (
taiga
Taiga or tayga ( ; , ), also known as boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches. The taiga, or boreal forest, is the world's largest land biome. In North A ...
)
#
Elfin woodland
#
Thorn forest
#
Thorn scrub
#
Temperate woodland
#
Temperate shrublands
#*
deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed Leaf, leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
#*
heath
A heath () is a shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining infertile, acidic soils and is characterised by open, low-growing woody vegetation. Moorland is generally related to high-ground heaths with—especially in Great Britain—a coole ...
#*
sclerophyll
Sclerophyll is a type of vegetation that is adapted to long periods of dryness and heat. The plants feature hard leaves, short Internode (botany), internodes (the distance between leaves along the stem) and leaf orientation which is parallel or ...
#*
subalpine-needleleaf
#*
subalpine-broadleaf
#
Savanna
A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) biome and ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach th ...
#
Temperate grassland
#
Alpine grasslands
#
Tundra
In physical geography, a tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are three regions and associated types of tundra: #Arctic, Arctic, Alpine tundra, Alpine, and #Antarctic ...
#
Tropical desert
#
Warm-temperate desert
#
Cool temperate desert scrub
#
Arctic-alpine desert
#
Bog
A bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat as a deposit of dead plant materials often mosses, typically sphagnum moss. It is one of the four main types of wetlands. Other names for bogs include mire, mosses, quagmire, and musk ...
#
Tropical fresh-water swamp forest
#
Temperate fresh-water swamp forest
#
Mangrove swamp
# Salt marsh
# Wetland
Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types
The multi-authored series ''Ecosystems of the World'', edited by
David W. Goodall, provides a comprehensive coverage of the major "ecosystem types or biomes" on Earth:
Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes
The eponymously named
Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and precipitation. The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the important climate traits and
vegetation types. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.
Schultz (1988) eco-zones
Schultz (1988, 2005) defined nine ''ecozones'' (his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept of biome than to the concept of
ecozone of BBC):
[Schultz, J. ''Die Ökozonen der Erde'', 1st ed., Ulmer, Stuttgart, Germany, 1988, 488 pp.; 2nd ed., 1995, 535 pp.; 3rd ed., 2002; 4th ed., 2008; 5th ed., 2016. Transl.: ''The Ecozones of the World: The Ecological Divisions of the Geosphere''. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1995; 2nd ed., 2005]
# polar/subpolar zone
# boreal zone
# humid mid-latitudes
# dry mid-latitudes
# subtropics with winter rain
# subtropics with year-round rain
# dry tropics and subtropics
# tropics with summer rain
# tropics with year-round rain
Bailey (1989) ecoregions
Robert Bailey (geographer), Robert G. Bailey nearly developed a
biogeographical classification system of
ecoregion
An ecoregion (ecological region) is an ecological and geographic area that exists on multiple different levels, defined by type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and c ...
s for the United States in a map published in 1976. He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989. The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided into four domains (polar, humid temperate, dry, and humid tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain).
* 100 Polar Domain
** 120
Tundra
In physical geography, a tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are three regions and associated types of tundra: #Arctic, Arctic, Alpine tundra, Alpine, and #Antarctic ...
Division (Köppen:
Ft)
** M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces
** 130 Subarctic Division (Köppen:
E)
** M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces
* 200 Humid Temperate Domain
** 210 Warm Continental Division (Köppen: portion of
Dcb)
** M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
** 220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of
Dca)
** M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
** 230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of
Cf)
** M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces
** 240 Marine Division (Köppen:
Do)
** M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces
** 250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of
Cf,
Dca,
Dcb)
** 260 Mediterranean Division (Köppen:
Cs)
** M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces
* 300 Dry Domain
** 310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division
** M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces
** 320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division
** 330 Temperate Steppe Division
** 340 Temperate Desert Division
* 400 Humid Tropical Domain
** 410 Savanna Division
** 420 Rainforest Division
Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200

A team of biologists convened by the
World Wildlife Fund
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is a Swiss-based international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the ...
(WWF) developed a scheme that divided the world's land area into
biogeographic realm
A biogeographic realm is the broadest biogeography, biogeographic division of Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial animal, terrestrial organisms. They are subdivided into bioregions, which are further subdivid ...
s (called "ecozones" in a BBC scheme), and these into
ecoregion
An ecoregion (ecological region) is an ecological and geographic area that exists on multiple different levels, defined by type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and c ...
s (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.). Each ecoregion is characterized by a main biome (also called major habitat type).
[Olson, D. M. & E. Dinerstein (1998). The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions. ''Conservation Biol.'' 12:502–515]
.[Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D'Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., Kassem, K. R. (2001). Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth. ''Bioscience'' 51(11):933–938]
.
This classification is used to define the
Global 200
The Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by the World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF), the global conservation organization, as priorities for conservation. According to WWF, an ecoregion is defined as a "relatively large unit of land or w ...
list of
ecoregion
An ecoregion (ecological region) is an ecological and geographic area that exists on multiple different levels, defined by type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and c ...
s identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation.
For the
terrestrial ecoregions
An ecoregion (ecological region) is an ecology, ecological and Geography, geographic area that exists on multiple different levels, defined by type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of la ...
, there is a specific EcoID, format XXnnNN (XX is the
biogeographic realm
A biogeographic realm is the broadest biogeography, biogeographic division of Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial animal, terrestrial organisms. They are subdivided into bioregions, which are further subdivid ...
, nn is the biome number, NN is the individual number).
Biogeographic realm
A biogeographic realm is the broadest biogeography, biogeographic division of Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial animal, terrestrial organisms. They are subdivided into bioregions, which are further subdivid ...
s (terrestrial and freshwater)

* NA:
Nearctic
The Nearctic realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting the Earth's land surface.
The Nearctic realm covers most of North America, including Greenland, Central Florida, and the highlands of Mexico. The parts of North America ...
* PA:
Palearctic
The Palearctic or Palaearctic is a biogeographic realm of the Earth, the largest of eight. Confined almost entirely to the Eastern Hemisphere, it stretches across Europe and Asia, north of the foothills of the Himalayas, and North Africa.
Th ...
* AT:
Afrotropic
* IM:
Indomalaya
The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia.
Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Ind ...
* AA:
Australasia
Australasia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising Australia, New Zealand (overlapping with Polynesia), and sometimes including New Guinea and surrounding islands (overlapping with Melanesia). The term is used in a number of different context ...
* NT:
Neotropic
The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone.
Definition
In biogeogra ...
* OC:
Oceania
Oceania ( , ) is a region, geographical region including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Outside of the English-speaking world, Oceania is generally considered a continent, while Mainland Australia is regarded as its co ...
* AN:
Antarctic
The Antarctic (, ; commonly ) is the polar regions of Earth, polar region of Earth that surrounds the South Pole, lying within the Antarctic Circle. It is antipodes, diametrically opposite of the Arctic region around the North Pole.
The Antar ...
The applicability of the realms scheme above – based on Udvardy (1975)—to most freshwater taxa is unresolved.
[Abell, R., M. Thieme, C. Revenga, M. Bryer, M. Kottelat, N. Bogutskaya, B. Coad, N. Mandrak, S. Contreras-Balderas, W. Bussing, M. L. J. Stiassny, P. Skelton, G. R. Allen, P. Unmack, A. Naseka, R. Ng, N. Sindorf, J. Robertson, E. Armijo, J. Higgins, T. J. Heibel, E. Wikramanayake, D. Olson, H. L. Lopez, R. E. d. Reis, J. G. Lundberg, M. H. Sabaj Perez, and P. Petry. (2008). Freshwater ecoregions of the world: A new map of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation. ''BioScience'' 58:403–414]
.
Biogeographic realms ( Marine ecoregion, marine)
*
Arctic
The Arctic (; . ) is the polar regions of Earth, polar region of Earth that surrounds the North Pole, lying within the Arctic Circle. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway ( ...
*
Temperate Northern Atlantic
*
Temperate Northern Pacific
*
Tropical Atlantic
*
Western Indo-Pacific
The Western Indo-Pacific is a biogeographic region of the Earth's seas, comprising the tropical waters of the eastern and central Indian Ocean. It is part of the larger Indo-Pacific, which includes the tropical Indian Ocean, the western and centr ...
*
Central Indo-Pacific
*
Eastern Indo-Pacific
*
Tropical Eastern Pacific
The Tropical Eastern Pacific is one of the twelve marine realms that cover the coastal waters and continental shelves of the world's oceans. The Tropical Eastern Pacific extends along the Pacific Coast of the Americas, from the southern tip of th ...
*
Temperate South America
Temperate South America is a biogeography, biogeographic region of the Earth's seas, comprising the temperate and subtropical waters of South America, including both the Pacific Ocean, Pacific and Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic coasts of the continent a ...
*
Temperate Southern Africa
*
Temperate Australasia
*
Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the world ocean, generally taken to be south of 60th parallel south, 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica. With a size of , it is the seco ...
[Spalding, M. D. et al. (2007). Marine ecoregions of the world: a bioregionalization of coastal and shelf areas. ''BioScience'' 57: 573–583]
.
Biomes (terrestrial)
#
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (TSMF), also known as tropical moist forest, is a subtropical and tropical forest habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
Description
TSMF is generally found in la ...
(tropical and subtropical, humid)
#
Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests
The tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest is a habitat (ecology), habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature and is located at tropical and subtropical latitudes. Though these forests occur in climates that are warm year-roun ...
(tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
#
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests are a tropical forest habitat (ecology), habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. These forests are found predominantly in North America, North and Central America and experience low level ...
(tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
#
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest is a temperate climate terrestrial habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature, with broadleaf tree ecoregions, and with conifer and broadleaf tree mixed coniferous forest ecoregions.
These ...
(temperate, humid)
#
Temperate coniferous forests
Temperate coniferous forest is a terrestrial ecoregion, terrestrial biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Temperate coniferous forests are found predominantly in areas with warm summers and cool winters, and vary in their kinds of plant ...
(temperate, humid to semihumid)
#
Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)
#
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands is a terrestrial biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. The biome is dominated by grass and/or shrubs located in semi-arid to semi- humid climate regions of subtropical and ...
(tropical and subtropical, semiarid)
#
Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands are terrestrial biomes defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. The predominant vegetation in these biomes consists of grass and/or shrubs. The climate is temperate and ranges from Semi-arid clima ...
(temperate, semiarid)
#
Flooded grasslands and savannas
Flooded grasslands and savannas is a terrestrial biome of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) biogeographical system, consisting of large expanses or complexes of flooded grasslands. These areas support numerous plants and animals adapted to th ...
(temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)
#
Montane grasslands and shrublands
Montane grasslands and shrublands are a biome defined by the World Wildlife Fund. The biome includes high elevation grasslands and shrublands around the world. The term "montane" in the name of the biome refers to "high elevation", rather than t ...
(alpine or montane climate)
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Tundra
In physical geography, a tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are three regions and associated types of tundra: #Arctic, Arctic, Alpine tundra, Alpine, and #Antarctic ...
(Arctic)
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Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub is a biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. The biome is generally characterized by dry summers and rainy winters, although in some areas rainfall may be uniform. Summers are typically hot in ...
or
sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)
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Deserts and xeric shrublands
Deserts and xeric shrublands are a biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Deserts and xeric (Ancient Greek 'dry') shrublands form the largest terrestrial biome, covering 19% of Earth's land surface area. Ecoregions in this habitat ...
(temperate to tropical, arid)
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Mangrove
A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows mainly in coastal saline water, saline or brackish water. Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have particular adaptations to take in extra oxygen a ...
(subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)
Biomes (freshwater)
According to the WWF, the following are classified as
freshwater
Fresh water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term excludes seawater and brackish water, but it does include non-salty mi ...
biomes:
* Large
lake
A lake is often a naturally occurring, relatively large and fixed body of water on or near the Earth's surface. It is localized in a basin or interconnected basins surrounded by dry land. Lakes lie completely on land and are separate from ...
s
* Large
river deltas
A river delta is a landform, wikt:archetype#Noun, archetypically triangular, created by the deposition (geology), deposition of the sediments that are carried by the waters of a river, where the river merges with a body of slow-moving water or ...
* Polar
freshwater
Fresh water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term excludes seawater and brackish water, but it does include non-salty mi ...
s
* Montane
freshwater
Fresh water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term excludes seawater and brackish water, but it does include non-salty mi ...
s
* Temperate
coastal rivers
* Temperate floodplain rivers and
wetland
A wetland is a distinct semi-aquatic ecosystem whose groundcovers are flooded or saturated in water, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-poor ( anoxic) processes taking place, especially ...
s
* Temperate Upland and lowland (freshwater ecology), upland rivers
* Tropical and subtropical
coastal rivers
* Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and
wetland
A wetland is a distinct semi-aquatic ecosystem whose groundcovers are flooded or saturated in water, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-poor ( anoxic) processes taking place, especially ...
s
* Tropical and subtropical Upland and lowland (freshwater ecology), upland rivers
* Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins
* Oceanic islands
Biomes (marine)
Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):
* Polar
* Temperate shelves and sea
* Temperate upwelling
* Tropical upwelling
* Coral reef, Tropical coral
Summary of the scheme
* Biosphere
**
Biogeographic realm
A biogeographic realm is the broadest biogeography, biogeographic division of Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial animal, terrestrial organisms. They are subdivided into bioregions, which are further subdivid ...
s (terrestrial) (8)
*** Ecoregions (867), each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type (14)
**** Ecosystems (
biotope
A biotope is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage of flora (plants), plants and fauna (animals), animals. ''Biotope'' is almost synonymous with the term habitat (ecology), "habitat", which ...
s)
* Biosphere
**
Biogeographic realm
A biogeographic realm is the broadest biogeography, biogeographic division of Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial animal, terrestrial organisms. They are subdivided into bioregions, which are further subdivid ...
s (freshwater) (8)
*** Ecoregions (426), each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type (12)
**** Ecosystems (biotopes)
* Biosphere
** Biogeographic realms (marine) (12)
*** (Ecoregion#Marine, Marine provinces) (62)
**** Ecoregions (232), each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type (5)
***** Ecosystems (biotopes)
Example:
* Biosphere
**
Biogeographic realm
A biogeographic realm is the broadest biogeography, biogeographic division of Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial animal, terrestrial organisms. They are subdivided into bioregions, which are further subdivid ...
: Palearctic
*** Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (PA0418); biome type: temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
**** Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100 and 1,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, nemoral zone (temperate zone)
***** Biotope: ''Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae'' Fuk. (Dinaric calcareous block fir forest#Plant list, Plant list)
****** Plant: Silver fir (''Abies alba'')
Other biomes
Marine biomes
Pruvot (1896) zones or "systems":
* Littoral, Littoral zone
* Pelagic zone
* Abyssal zone
Longhurst code, Longhurst (1998) biomes:
* Coastal
* Polar
* Trade wind
* Westerly
Other marine habitat types (not covered yet by the Global 200/WWF scheme):
* Open sea
* Deep sea
* Hydrothermal vents
* Cold seeps
* Benthic zone
* Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies)
* Abyssal
* Hadal (ocean trench)
* Littoral zone, Littoral/Intertidal zone
* Salt marsh
* Estuary, Estuaries
* Coastal lagoons/Atoll lagoons
* Kelp forest
* Pack ice
Anthropogenic biomes
Humans have altered global patterns of biodiversity and
ecosystem
An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by Organism, organisms in interaction with their Biophysical environment, environment. The Biotic material, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and en ...
processes. As a result, vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much of Earth's land surface as they have been replaced by crops and rangelands or cities. Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other land use, uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a way to recognize the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and manage Earth's biosphere and anthropogenic biomes.

Major anthropogenic biomes:
* Dense settlements
* Croplands
* Rangelands
* Forested
* Indoor
Microbial biomes
Endolithic biomes
The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock porosity, pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification schemes.
Effects of climate change
Anthropogenic climate change has the potential to greatly alter the distribution of Earth's biomes.
Meaning, biomes around the world could change so much that they would be at risk of becoming new biomes entirely. More specifically, between 54% and 22% of global land area will experience climates that correspond to other biomes.
3.6% of land area will experience climates that are completely new or unusual. An example of a biome shift is woody plant encroachment, which can change grass savanna into shrub savanna.
Average temperatures have risen more than twice the usual amount in both arctic and mountainous biomes,
which leads to the conclusion that arctic and mountainous biomes are currently the most vulnerable to climate change.
South American terrestrial biomes have been predicted to go through the same temperature trends as arctic and mountainous biomes.
With its annual average temperature continuing to increase, the moisture currently located in forest biomes will dry up.
See also
*
*
*
*
References
Further reading
* Ritter, Michael E. (2005)
The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point.
External links
* University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley'
The World's Biomes* Gale/Cengag
(archived 11 July 2011)
*
Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes MapWorldBiomes.com(archived 22 February 2011)
* Panda.org'
Major Habitat Types(archived 6 July 2017)
* NASA's Earth Observator
Mission: Biomes
{{Authority control
Biomes,
Habitats