George Biassou (1 January 1741 – 14 July 1801) was an early leader of the 1791 slave rising in
Saint-Domingue that began the
Haitian Revolution. With
Jean-François and
Jeannot, he was prophesied by the
vodou priest,
Dutty Boukman
Dutty Boukman (or Boukman Dutty; died 7 November 1791) was an early leader of the Haitian Revolution. Born in Senegambia (present-day Senegal and Gambia), he was enslaved
to Jamaica. He eventually ended up in Haiti, where he became a leader of ...
, to lead the revolution.
Like some other slave leaders, he fought with the
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
royalists against the
French Revolution
The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in coup of 18 Brumaire, November 1799. Many of its ...
ary authorities in
colonial Haiti. Defeated by his former ally
Toussaint Louverture
François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture (; also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda; 20 May 1743 – 7 April 1803) was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. During his life, Louverture ...
, who had allied with the French after they promised to free the slaves, Biassou remained in service to the Spanish Crown. He withdrew from Santo Domingo in 1795 and moved with his family to
Florida
Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
, which was then part of the Spanish
colony
In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the '' metropolitan state' ...
of
Cuba
Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
.
In Florida, Biassou changed his first name to Jorge. Spanish leaders put him in charge of the
black militia in Florida. He began to build alliances there when his brother-in-law married a fugitive from South Carolina. Florida had provided refuge for both planters and slaves during the
American Revolution
The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution that occurred in British America between 1765 and 1791. The Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that defeated the British in the American Revoluti ...
.
Georges Biassou was born in 1741 on the island of
Hispaniola, as a slave on a sugar plantation in the French colony of
Saint-Domingue, modern day
Haiti.
He was an early leader of the 1791 slave revolt in Saint-Domingue, in which he and his fellow leaders,
Jean-François Papillon Jean-François Papillon (died in the early 1800s) was one of the principal leaders in the Haitian Revolution against slavery and French rule. He led the initial uprising of enslaved workers and later allied with Spain against the French.
He was bor ...
and
Jeannot Bullet, killed the plantation owners to whom they were enslaved. This ultimately led to the
Haitian revolution (1791-1804). Biassou and Jean-François offered to cease the revolt, in exchange for emancipation, however France was preoccupied with multiple wars, and hence dismissed this proposal. In 1793, a war between France and Spain manifested in Hispaniola. Biassou and his fellow revolutionaries were requested to aid Spain in fighting against France in exchange for freedom, to which they agreed.
France abolished slavery throughout its empire in 1794, however Biassou remained loyal to Spain.
In 1796, Biassou relocated to
St. Augustine, Florida, where he became the general of the free black militia stationed at
Fort Matanzas. He died there in 1801.
Saint-Domingue
![Hispaniola location map](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Hispaniola_location_map.svg)
Georges Biassou was born in 1741 in Saint-Domingue, Hispaniola. Hispaniola is an island which previously consisted of Saint-Domingue on the western third, and
Santo Domingo
, total_type = Total
, population_density_km2 = auto
, timezone = AST (UTC −4)
, area_code_type = Area codes
, area_code = 809, 829, 849
, postal_code_type = Postal codes
, postal_code = 10100–10699 ( Distrito Nacional)
, webs ...
on the east. Saint-Domingue is now recognised as the
Republic of Haiti
Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and so ...
, and Santo Domingo as the
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares with ...
. The island lies in the
Greater Antilles
The Greater Antilles ( es, Grandes Antillas or Antillas Mayores; french: Grandes Antilles; ht, Gwo Zantiy; jam, Grieta hAntiliiz) is a grouping of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea, including Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, a ...
, a group of islands in the
Caribbean Sea
The Caribbean Sea ( es, Mar Caribe; french: Mer des Caraïbes; ht, Lanmè Karayib; jam, Kiaribiyan Sii; nl, Caraïbische Zee; pap, Laman Karibe) is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere. It is bounded by Mexico ...
and part of the
West Indies
The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greate ...
. Saint-Domingue was initially claimed by Spain, which later ceded the colony to France. France controlled Saint-Domingue from 1659 to 1804, and it became the most lucrative colony in the
French colonial empire, as well as throughout the Caribbean.
Saint-Domingue was known as the “Pearl of the Antilles” for its resources, subsequent profitability and beauty.
The economy hinged on slave plantations and their production of export crops. Enslaved Africans grew sugar in the northern plains around
Cap Français
A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. Caps typically have a visor, or no brim at all. They are popular in casual and informal se ...
, and coffee in the mountainous terrain.
Georges and his family laboured on a sugar plantation.
By the 1780s, Saint-Domingue produced 40% of all sugar and 60% of all coffee in Europe, profiting the French government and further reinforcing its dominance. To maintain this economy, from 1786 onwards, approximately 40,000 slaves were annually imported into Saint-Domingue from Africa.
The Saint-Domingue colony was regarded as one of the harshest, considering the high levels of violence and mortality. The plantation owners were notoriously brutal, often using whips for the punishment of their slaves, producing an unprecedented standard of violence.
Social structure
Saint-Domingue's population was stratified with a rigid
caste system.
The population was divided into three groups. White colonists, or '
''les blancs'
'' were of the highest rank.
This group was subdivided into government officials and plantation owners, referred to as ''
'grandes blancs'
'', and a lower class of whites, referred to as ''
'petits blancs'
'',
who were usually shopkeepers, artisans and labourers.
Free persons of colour, or '
''gens de couleur libres, were '
mulattoes'
who were decedents of white fathers and black mothers.
They were relatively educated and were usually administrators on plantations, or in the army. Some even owned their own plantations and slaves.
This strata also included '
affranchi
Affranchi () is a former French legal term denoting a freedman or emancipated slave, but was a term used to refer pejoratively to mulattoes. It is used in the English language to describe the social class of freedmen in Saint-Domingue, and othe ...
s', who had been free for generations, owned property and enjoyed considerable rights. They were, however, excluded from positions in office and some occupations. Members of this stratum often identified more so with the whites, however still faced distinct social differentiation.
African-born slaves, such as Georges Biassou, ranked the lowest.
In 1789, Saint-Domingue housed 500,000 slaves and 32,000 whites.
This colonial stratification pattern laid the foundation of Haiti's present day class system.
Social conflict
White colonists and black slaves continually participated in violent conflict, many of which involved “
maroons
Maroons are descendants of Africans in the Americas who escaped from slavery and formed their own settlements. They often mixed with indigenous peoples, eventually evolving into separate creole cultures such as the Garifuna and the Mascogos.
...
”.
Paul Fregosi, in his book ''Dreams of Empire: Napoleon and the First World war 1792-1815'', emphases that each of the three social classes in Saint-Domingue despised one another.
In May 1791, the French government granted citizenship to wealthier emancipated slaves, often referred to as “
affranchi
Affranchi () is a former French legal term denoting a freedman or emancipated slave, but was a term used to refer pejoratively to mulattoes. It is used in the English language to describe the social class of freedmen in Saint-Domingue, and othe ...
s”. This caused uproar among the small European population of Saint-Domingue, who refused to treat them as equal. This, as well as generations of inequality and brutality, caused Biassou and other African slaves to become enraged
July 1791 saw physical fights between Europeans and African slaves, and in August of the same year, a slave rebellion rose.
Georges Biassou attended the
Vodou ceremony at
Bois-Caiman where Vodou priest,
Dutty Boukman
Dutty Boukman (or Boukman Dutty; died 7 November 1791) was an early leader of the Haitian Revolution. Born in Senegambia (present-day Senegal and Gambia), he was enslaved
to Jamaica. He eventually ended up in Haiti, where he became a leader of ...
, declared that Georges Biassou, Jean-François Papillon and Jeannot Bullet would lead the insurrection. Jean-François executed Jeannot early in the uprising due to his excessive violence and cruelty, particularly that he commanded a rebel camp in which he tortured and executed white prisoners.
Haitian Revolution
![Haitian Revolution - Black slaves killing white slavers](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Haitian_Revolution_-_Black_slaves_killing_white_slavers.jpg)
The Haitian Revolution was a series of conflicts which began on 22 August 1791 and ended on 1 January 1804. It involved Haitian slaves,
"affranchis", “
mulattoes”, colonists, French royalist troops, French revolutionary forces, and the British and Spanish armies. The revolution was initially an insurrection against French imperial authority; however, it later became a battle of racial inequity, and then of slavery in general.
Thomas Madiou's ''Historie d’Haïti'' (English: History of Haiti) emphasises that within the first months of fighting, Georges Biassou and Jean-François Papillon became the most important insurgent leaders.
Biassou commanded approximately 40,000 slaves to burn plantations and murder the “great whites”.
Biassou and Papillon proposed peace negotiations with France, offering to cease the revolt in exchange for emancipation. France was preoccupied, being at war with several monarchies and kingdoms, and hence dismissed this proposal. Concurrently, Biassou and Papillon developed informal contacts with Spain, which controlled Santo Domingo.
In 1793, France declared war on Spain, a war which eventually manifested in Hispaniola. Spain granted freedom to the revolutionaries in exchange for their assistance in battling France in Santo Domingo. A military organisation called the Black Auxiliaries of
Charles IV was formed for the rebel leaders. Members included Georges Biassou, Jean-François Papillon,
Toussaint Louverture
François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture (; also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda; 20 May 1743 – 7 April 1803) was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. During his life, Louverture ...
and other rebels. The Black Auxiliaries were provided with weapons, supplies, and salaries. Biassou ultimately received Spanish citizenship, gold medals, and letters of recognition and confidence from the Spanish Government.
Slave emancipation in Saint-Domingue
In 1792, abolitionist
Léger Félicité Sonthonax was sent to Saint-Domingue from France to maintain order. He was titled the ''de facto'' ruler of Saint Domingue from September 1792 to 1795.
Sonthonax also offered freedom to slaves who joined his army.
In September and October 1793, slaves were emancipated throughout Saint-Domingue. Some insurgents, including Toussaint Louverture, withdrew from the Black Auxiliaries to return to Saint-Domingue and support the French.
Loyalty to Spain
Biassou and François remained loyal to Spain, despite that it meant they were to fight against their former fellow, Louverture. Biassou and François both continued defending Spain until the war ended.
Spain was grateful for this loyalty, however, as the war concluded, the Spanish government no longer knew what to do with its Haitian “wolves”. The revolutionists were armed, skilled and former members of an army.
On February 4, 1794, all slaves were emancipated throughout all French colonies. This was enforced under an Act, and was ratified by the
French National Convention
The National Convention (french: link=no, Convention nationale) was the parliament of the Kingdom of France for one day and the French First Republic for the rest of its existence during the French Revolution, following the two-year National ...
. With the
Treaty of Basel in 1795, Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France.
Spain subsequently disbanded the Black Auxiliaries, meaning that its members, including Biassou, were to leave Hispaniola.
St. Augustine
![Diocese of St](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Diocese_of_St._Augustine_map_1.png)
In 1795, the Black Auxiliaries left Santo Domingo and headed to
Cuba
Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
. However, Cuban officials feared that their presence would provoke slave movements in Cuba. Thus, the Black Auxiliaries were prohibited from entering. Instead, they sailed to
St. Augustine, the capital of
East Florida
East Florida ( es, Florida Oriental) was a colony of Great Britain from 1763 to 1783 and a province of Spanish Florida from 1783 to 1821. Great Britain gained control of the long-established Spanish colony of ''La Florida'' in 1763 as part of ...
, which was also under Spanish control. St. Augustine had already enforced racial equality laws in 1792, thus providing refuge for emancipated slaves, and even former planters.
Upon arrival, St. Augustine's Governor,
Juan Nepomuceno de Quesada y Barnuevo, provided two nights worth of dinner for Georges and his Haitian followers, who he considered family. Georges changed his name to “Jorge” and was hereafter a free Spanish general. He was appointed leader of the Black Militia of St. Augustine, which he commanded from
Fort Matanzas.
![Salcedo House 01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Salcedo_House_01.jpg)
Although Biassou was largely perceived as a hero, the violence he caused in his pursuit of freedom was no secret.
Considering this, colonists and administrators in Florida feared Biassou, worrying that he might encourage a slave revolt in Florida too. They were especially weary as there had been two
slave uprising conspiracies in
Pointe Coupée, Louisiana, which is relatively proximal to Florida. Despite this, Governor Quesada made an effort to maintain Biassou's image as a loyal soldier, rather than a rebel. Biassou wore gold-trimmed clothing and carried both a silver
sabre
A sabre ( French: sabʁ or saber in American English) is a type of backsword with a curved blade associated with the light cavalry of the early modern and Napoleonic periods. Originally associated with Central European cavalry such as th ...
and an ivory dagger.
Constitution of 1801
Whilst Biassou settled in St. Augustine,
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader wh ...
developed a new French constitution for all its colonies. Toussaint Louverture propagated the constitution on 7 July 1801, and established himself as governor of Hispaniola. Article 3 of the constitution states, ''“There cannot exist slaves, servitude is therein forever abolished. All men are born, live and die free and French.”''
Final years
![Fort Matanzas river view](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Fort_Matanzas_river_view.jpg)
Georges Biassou lived in the
Salcedo House in St. Augustine. He bought a plantation, farmed by slaves of his own. Biassou continued to serve Spain in his final years, defending Florida against attacks of the
Seminole Indians
The Seminole are a Native American people who developed in Florida in the 18th century. Today, they live in Oklahoma and Florida, and comprise three federally recognized tribes: the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, an ...
. He had achieved 10 years of freedom before he died at age 60 on 14 July 1801,
during a drunk brawl.
He was honoured with a Catholic mass and was buried at the
Tolomato Cemetery. The exact location of his gravesite is unknown, as most grave markers were made of wood and have long since disappeared.
Legacy
Georges was commemorated as a Spanish officer and an honourable veteran, and was recognised with a
Guard of Honour at his Funeral.
On 1 January 1804, the island of Hispaniola was declared an independent state, divided into the Republic of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Haiti is the only nation that has emerged from a successful slave rebellion in modern history.
Haiti's independence exposed an interdependence between slave emancipation and the construction of a
sovereign state
A sovereign state or sovereign country, is a political entity represented by one central government that has supreme legitimate authority over territory. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined te ...
, giving rise to issues such as the definition of citizenship and difficulties in laying political foundations. Georges Biassou's impact surpassed the domestic threshold and influenced world politics permanently. The Haitian revolution dictated the structure of international relations in the forthcoming 19th century with its defeat of the French colonial empire, and subsequent impact on Spain and England, who emerged weakened from the conflict and remained cautious for years to come.
In August 2009, the US Ambassador to Haiti, Raymond Joseph, visited St. Augustine to raise awareness for Haitian-American heritage. He visited Biassou's home, fort and cemetery, and placed a wreath in front of the chapel in Tolomato Cemetery in honour of Biassou.
In 1798, Biassou also appeared as a fictional character in Jean-Baptiste Picquenard's novel, '
''Adonis, ou le bon nègre, anecdote coloniale (English: Adonis, or the good negro, colonial anecdote), in which he is depicted as a "cruel and bloodthirsty leader".
Witness accounts
A witness account titled '
''The revolution of Saint-Domingue, containing everything that occurred in the French colony from the start of the revolution until the author's departure for France on 8 September 1792 (title translated to English) is written by an anonymous author, who is only identified by the fact that he is a white male. He details his experiences of being a white prisoner, being held captive on the first night of the uprising, August 22, 1791. This account provides a vivid first-person perceptive.
Monsieur Joseph Gros was one of Jeannot Bullet's white prisoners at his rebel camp. Gros also published an account, in which he states that Jeannot ordered for one prisoner to be tortured and executed every 24 hours, in order to “prolong his enjoyment”. Jeannot Bullet would be tried and executed for this by Georges Biassou and Jean-François Papillon.
Contemporary scholarship
Biassou's life has been thoroughly studied by scholars and historians, such as
Jane Landers. Landers is a historian who has conducted research on Biassou and black society in Spanish Florida for decades, with a PhD in Latin American Colonial History.
Her work provides most of what is known about Georges Biassou. She has written several books on the topic of black society and culture, a few of which are titled:
* ''Against the Odds: Free Blacks in the Slave Societies of the Americas''
* ''Atlantic Creoles in the Age of Revolutions''
* ''Black Society in Spanish Florida''
Biassou is also figured as a character in
Madison Smartt Bell's 1995 novel, ''All Souls Rising'', the first book in his Haitian Revolutionary trilogy series. It attempts to present a historically accurate rendition of the Haitian Revolution. The novel illustrates vivid details that are not facts, per se, but are based on actual events. The book also graphically depicts the witness account of Monsieur Joseph Gros. It was nominated for the 1996
PEN/Faulkner Award
The PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction is awarded annually by the PEN/Faulkner Foundation to the authors of the year's best works of fiction by living American citizens. The winner receives US$15,000 and each of four runners-up receives US$5000. Fi ...
and a finalist for the 1996 US
National Book Award
The National Book Awards are a set of annual U.S. literary awards. At the final National Book Awards Ceremony every November, the National Book Foundation presents the National Book Awards and two lifetime achievement awards to authors.
The Nat ...
. It also won the 1996
Anisfield-Wolf Award The Anisfield-Wolf Book Award is an American literary award dedicated to honoring written works that make important contributions to the understanding of racism and the appreciation of the rich diversity of human culture. Established in 1935 by Clev ...
for best book of the year which dealt with matters of race.
References
External links
*Berlin, Ira. ''Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998) p. 306-307
*Thomas Madiou. Histoire d'Haiti. Tome 1 1482–1799. Éditions Henri Deschamps,p. 98.
* The Louverture Project
Georges Biassou* St. Augustine History
Jorge Biassou in St. Augustine
{{DEFAULTSORT:Biassou, Georges
1741 births
1801 deaths
Haitian rebel slaves
Haitian independence activists
People of Spanish Florida
Former slaves
Spanish soldiers