![A stack of tractor tyres - geograph](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/A_stack_of_tractor_tyres_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1409842.jpg)
A tire (
American English
American English, sometimes called United States English or U.S. English, is the set of variety (linguistics), varieties of the English language native to the United States. English is the Languages of the United States, most widely spoken lan ...
) or tyre (
British English
British English (BrE, en-GB, or BE) is, according to Lexico, Oxford Dictionaries, "English language, English as used in Great Britain, as distinct from that used elsewhere". More narrowly, it can refer specifically to the English language in ...
) is a ring-shaped component that surrounds a
wheel's rim to transfer a vehicle's load from the
axle
An axle or axletree is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearing ...
through the wheel to the ground and to provide
traction on the surface over which the wheel travels. Most tires, such as those for automobiles and bicycles, are
pneumatic
Pneumatics (from Greek ‘wind, breath’) is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air.
Pneumatic systems used in Industrial sector, industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert gases. A central ...
ally inflated structures, which also provide a flexible cushion that absorbs shock as the tire rolls over rough features on the surface. Tires provide a footprint, called a
contact patch
Contact patch is the portion of a vehicle's tire that is in actual contact with the road surface. It is commonly used in the discussion of pneumatic (i.e. pressurized) tires, where the term is used strictly to describe the portion of the tire’s ...
, that is designed to match the weight of the vehicle with the bearing strength of the surface that it rolls over by providing a bearing pressure that will not deform the surface excessively.
The materials of modern pneumatic tires are
synthetic rubber
A synthetic rubber is an artificial elastomer. They are polymers synthesized from petroleum byproducts. About 32-million metric tons of rubbers are produced annually in the United States, and of that amount two thirds are synthetic. Synthetic rubbe ...
,
natural rubber
Rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, ''caucho'', or ''caoutchouc'', as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Thailand, Malaysia, and ...
, fabric, and wire, along with
carbon black
Carbon black (subtypes are acetylene black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black and thermal black) is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of coal and coal tar, vegetable matter, or petroleum products, including fuel oil, fluid ...
and other chemical compounds. They consist of a
tread
Tread may refer to:
Arts and media
* ''Tread'' (film), a 2019 American documentary film about Marvin Heemeyer
* Tread (Transformers)
* Tread, a character in the novel series '' Transformers: The Veiled Threat''
* Tread rap, subgenre of trap that b ...
and a body. The tread provides
traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of
compressed air
Compressed air is air kept under a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. Compressed air is an important medium for transfer of energy in industrial processes, and is used for power tools such as air hammers, drills, wrenches, and o ...
. Before
rubber
Rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, ''caucho'', or ''caoutchouc'', as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Thailand, Malaysia, and ...
was developed, the first versions of tires were simply bands of metal fitted around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Early rubber tires were solid (not pneumatic). Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, including
car
A car or automobile is a motor vehicle with wheels. Most definitions of ''cars'' say that they run primarily on roads, seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transport people instead of goods.
The year 1886 is regarded as ...
s,
bicycle
A bicycle, also called a pedal cycle, bike or cycle, is a human-powered or motor-powered assisted, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A is called a cyclist, or bicyclist.
Bic ...
s,
motorcycle
A motorcycle (motorbike, bike, or trike (if three-wheeled)) is a two or three-wheeled motor vehicle steered by a handlebar. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long-distance travel, commuting, cruising ...
s,
bus
A bus (contracted from omnibus, with variants multibus, motorbus, autobus, etc.) is a road vehicle that carries significantly more passengers than an average car or van. It is most commonly used in public transport, but is also in use for cha ...
es,
truck
A truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo, carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, but the vast majority feature body-on-frame construction ...
s,
heavy equipment
Heavy equipment or heavy machinery refers to heavy-duty vehicles specially designed to execute construction tasks, most frequently involving earthwork operations or other large construction tasks. ''Heavy equipment'' usually comprises five e ...
, and
aircraft
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines ...
. Metal tires are still used on
locomotive
A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the Power (physics), motive power for a train. If a locomotive is capable of carrying a payload, it is usually rather referred to as a multiple unit, Motor coach (rail), motor ...
s and
railcar
A railcar (not to be confused with a railway car) is a self-propelled railway vehicle designed to transport passengers. The term "railcar" is usually used in reference to a train consisting of a single coach (carriage, car), with a drive ...
s, and solid rubber (or other polymers) tires are still used in various non-automotive applications, such as some
caster
A caster (or castor) is an undriven wheel that is designed to be attached to the bottom of a larger object (the "vehicle") to enable that object to be moved.
Casters are used in numerous applications, including shopping carts, office chairs, t ...
s,
cart
A cart or dray (Australia and New Zealand) is a vehicle designed for transport, using two wheels and normally pulled by one or a pair of draught animals. A handcart is pulled or pushed by one or more people.
It is different from the flatbed tr ...
s,
lawnmower
A lawn mower (also known as a mower, grass cutter or lawnmower) is a device utilizing one or more revolving blades (or a reel) to cut a lawn, grass surface to an even height. The height of the cut grass may be fixed by the design of the mower, ...
s, and
wheelbarrow
A wheelbarrow is a small hand-propelled vehicle, usually with just one wheel, designed to be pushed and guided by a single person using two handles at the rear, or by a sail to push the ancient wheelbarrow by wind. The term "wheelbarrow" is mad ...
s.
Etymology and spelling
The word ''tire'' is a short form of ''attire'', from the idea that a wheel with a tire is a dressed wheel.
The spelling ''tyre'' does not appear until the 1840s when the English began shrink-fitting railway car wheels with malleable iron. Nevertheless, traditional publishers continued using ''tire''. ''
The Times
''The Times'' is a British daily national newspaper based in London. It began in 1785 under the title ''The Daily Universal Register'', adopting its current name on 1 January 1788. ''The Times'' and its sister paper ''The Sunday Times'' (fou ...
'' newspaper in Britain was still using ''tire'' as late as 1905. The spelling ''tyre'' began to be commonly used in the 19th century for pneumatic tires in the UK. The
1911 edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' states that ''"The spelling 'tyre' is not now accepted by the best English authorities, and is unrecognized in the US"'',
while
Fowler's ''Modern English Usage'' of 1926 says that "there is nothing to be said for 'tyre', which is etymologically wrong, as well as needlessly divergent from our own
c. British
C. or c. may refer to:
* Century, sometimes abbreviated as ''c.'' or ''C.'', a period of 100 years
* Cent (currency), abbreviated ''c.'' or ''¢'', a monetary unit that equals of the basic unit of many currencies
* Caius or Gaius, abbreviated ...
older & the present American usage".
However, over the course of the 20th century, ''tyre'' became established as the standard British spelling.
["tire, n.2." OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2016. Web. 26 January 2017.]
History
![John Boyd Dunlop (c1915)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/John_Boyd_Dunlop_%28c1915%29.jpg)
The earliest tires were bands of
leather
Leather is a strong, flexible and durable material obtained from the tanning, or chemical treatment, of animal skins and hides to prevent decay. The most common leathers come from cattle, sheep, goats, equine animals, buffalo, pigs and hogs, ...
, then
iron
Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in f ...
(later
steel
Steel is an alloy made up of iron with added carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resistant ty ...
) placed on wooden wheels used on carts and
wagon
A wagon or waggon is a heavy four-wheeled vehicle pulled by draught animals or on occasion by humans, used for transporting goods, commodities, agricultural materials, supplies and sometimes people.
Wagons are immediately distinguished from ...
s. A skilled worker, known as a
wheelwright
A wheelwright is a craftsman who builds or repairs wooden wheels. The word is the combination of "wheel" and the word "wright", (which comes from the Old English word "''wryhta''", meaning a worker or shaper of wood) as in shipwright and arkw ...
, would cause the tire to expand by heating it in a
forge
A forge is a type of hearth used for heating metals, or the workplace (smithy) where such a hearth is located. The forge is used by the smith to heat a piece of metal to a temperature at which it becomes easier to shape by forging, or to th ...
fire, placing it over the wheel and quenching it, causing the metal to contract back to its original size so that it would fit tightly on the wheel.
The first patent for what appears to be a standard pneumatic tire appeared in 1847 lodged by Scottish inventor
Robert William Thomson
Robert William Thomson PRSSA FRSE (29 June 1822–8 March 1873), from Stonehaven, Scotland, was the inventor of the fountain pen and original inventor of the pneumatic tyre.
Life
He was born on 29 June 1822 in Stonehaven in the northeas ...
. However, this never went into production. The first practical pneumatic tire was made in 1888 on May Street,
Belfast
Belfast ( , ; from ga, Béal Feirste , meaning 'mouth of the sand-bank ford') is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, standing on the banks of the River Lagan on the east coast. It is the 12th-largest city in the United Kingdo ...
, by Scots-born
John Boyd Dunlop
John Boyd Dunlop (5 February 1840 – 23 October 1921) was a Scottish-born inventor and veterinary surgeon who spent most of his career in Ireland. Familiar with making rubber devices, he invented the first practical pneumatic tyres for his c ...
, owner of one of Ireland's most prosperous veterinary practices. It was an effort to prevent the headaches of his 10-year-old son Johnnie while riding his
tricycle
A tricycle, sometimes abbreviated to trike, is a human-powered (or gasoline or electric motor powered or assisted, or gravity powered) three-wheeled vehicle.
Some tricycles, such as cycle rickshaws (for passenger transport) and freight trikes, ...
on rough pavements. His doctor, John, later Sir John Fagan, had prescribed cycling as an exercise for the boy and was a regular visitor. Fagan participated in designing the first pneumatic tires. Cyclist
Willie Hume
William Hume (3 April 1862 – 1941The Bicycle, 12 Nov 1941, p6) was an Irish cyclist. He demonstrated the supremacy of John Boyd Dunlop's newly invented pneumatic tyres in 1889, winning the tyre's first ever races in Ireland and then Englan ...
demonstrated the supremacy of Dunlop's tires in 1889, winning the tire's first-ever races in Ireland and then England.
[The Golden Book of Cycling – William Hume, 1938. Archive maintained by 'The Pedal Club'.](_blank)
In Dunlop's tire patent specification dated 31 October 1888, his interest is only in its use in cycles and light vehicles. In September 1890, he was made aware of an earlier development but the company kept the information to itself.
[Sir Arthur Du Cros, Bt, ''Wheels of Fortune, a salute to pioneers'', Chapman & Hall, London 1938]
In 1892, Dunlop's patent was declared invalid because of the prior art by forgotten fellow Scot Robert William Thomson of London (patents London 1845, France 1846, USA 1847), although Dunlop is credited with "realizing rubber could withstand the wear and tear of being a tire while retaining its resilience". John Boyd Dunlop and
Harvey du Cros together worked through the ensuing considerable difficulties. They employed inventor Charles Kingston Welch and also acquired other rights and patents which allowed them some limited protection of their
Pneumatic Tyre
Pneumatics (from Greek ‘wind, breath’) is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air.
Pneumatic systems used in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert gases. A centrally located and elec ...
business's position. Pneumatic Tyre would become Dunlop Rubber and
Dunlop Tyres
Dunlop Tyres is a brand of tyres which is managed by different companies around the world. It was founded by pneumatic tyre pioneer John Boyd Dunlop in Dublin, Ireland, in 1890.
The brand is operated by Goodyear in North America (passenger c ...
. The development of this technology hinged on myriad engineering advances, including the
vulcanization
Vulcanization (British: Vulcanisation) is a range of processes for hardening rubbers. The term originally referred exclusively to the treatment of natural rubber with sulfur, which remains the most common practice. It has also grown to include ...
of natural rubber using sulfur, as well as by the development of the "clincher" rim for holding the tire in place laterally on the wheel rim.
Synthetic rubber
A synthetic rubber is an artificial elastomer. They are polymers synthesized from petroleum byproducts. About 32-million metric tons of rubbers are produced annually in the United States, and of that amount two thirds are synthetic. Synthetic rubbe ...
s were invented in the laboratories of
Bayer
Bayer AG (, commonly pronounced ; ) is a German multinational corporation, multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company and one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world. Headquartered in Leverkusen, Bayer's areas of busi ...
in the 1920s.
[Werner Obrecht, Jean-Pierre Lambert, Michael Happ, Christiane Oppenheimer-Stix, John Dunn and Ralf Krüger "Rubber, 4. Emulsion Rubbers" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2012, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. ]
Rubber shortages in the United Kingdom during WWII prompted research on alternatives to rubber tires with suggestions including leather, compressed asbestos, rayon, felt, bristles and paper.
In 1946,
Michelin
Michelin (; ; full name: ) is a French multinational tyre manufacturing company based in Clermont-Ferrand in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes ''région'' of France. It is the second largest tyre manufacturer in the world behind Bridgestone and la ...
developed the
radial tire
A radial tire (more properly, a radial-ply tire) is a particular design of vehicular tire. In this design, the cord plies are arranged at 90 degrees to the direction of travel, or radially (from the center of the tire). Radial tire construction ...
method of construction. Michelin had bought the bankrupt
Citroën
Citroën () is a French automobile brand. The "Automobiles Citroën" manufacturing company was founded in March 1919 by André Citroën. Citroën is owned by Stellantis since 2021 and previously was part of the PSA Group after Peugeot acquired ...
automobile company in 1934, so it was able to fit this new technology immediately. Because of its superiority in handling and fuel economy,
use of this technology quickly spread throughout Europe and Asia.
In the US, the outdated bias-ply tire construction persisted, until the Ford Motor Company adopted radial tires in the early 1970s, following a 1968 article in an influential American magazine, ''
Consumer Reports
Consumer Reports (CR), formerly Consumers Union (CU), is an American nonprofit consumer organization dedicated to independent product testing, investigative journalism, consumer-oriented research, public education, and consumer advocacy.
Founded ...
'', highlighting the superiority of radial construction.
The US tire industry lost its market share to Japanese and European manufacturers, which bought out US companies.
Applications
Tires may be classified according to the type of vehicle they serve. They may be distinguished by the load they carry and by their application, e.g. to a motor vehicle, aircraft, or bicycle.
Automotive
Light–medium duty
![Rali Portugal (168)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Rali_Portugal_%28168%29.JPG)
Light-duty tires for passenger vehicles carry loads in the range of on the drive wheel. Light-to-medium duty trucks and vans carry loads in the range of on the drive wheel.
They are differentiated by
speed rating
In everyday use and in kinematics, the speed (commonly referred to as ''v'') of an object is the magnitude of the change of its position over time or the magnitude of the change of its position per unit of time; it is thus a scalar quanti ...
for different vehicles, including (starting from the lowest speed to the highest): winter tires, light truck tires, entry-level car tires, sedans and vans, sport sedans, and high-performance cars.
Apart from road tires, there are special categories:
*
Snow tire
Snow tires, also known as winter tires, are tires designed for use on snow and ice. Snow tires have a tread design with larger gaps than those on conventional tires, increasing traction on snow and ice. Such tires that have passed a specific win ...
s are designed for use on
snow
Snow comprises individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere—usually within clouds—and then fall, accumulating on the ground where they undergo further changes.
It consists of frozen crystalline water throughout ...
and
ice
Ice is water frozen into a solid state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 0 degrees Celsius or Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaq ...
. They have a
tread
Tread may refer to:
Arts and media
* ''Tread'' (film), a 2019 American documentary film about Marvin Heemeyer
* Tread (Transformers)
* Tread, a character in the novel series '' Transformers: The Veiled Threat''
* Tread rap, subgenre of trap that b ...
design with larger gaps than those on summer tires, increasing
traction on snow and ice. Such tires that have passed a specific winter traction performance test are entitled to display a "Three-Peak Mountain Snow Flake" symbol on their sidewalls. Tires designed for winter conditions are optimized to drive at temperatures below . Some snow tires have metal or ceramic studs that protrude from the tire to increase traction on hard-packed snow or ice. Studs abrade dry pavement, causing dust and creating wear in the wheel path. Regulations that require the use of snow tires or permit the use of studs vary by country in Asia and Europe, and by state or province in North America.
* All-season tires are typically rated for mud and snow (M+S). These tires have tread gaps that are smaller than snow tires and larger than conventional tires. They are quieter than snow tires on clear roads, but less capable on snow or ice.
* All-terrain tires are designed to have adequate traction off-road, yet have benign handling and noise characteristics for highway driving. Such tires are rated better on snow and rain than street tires and "good" on ice, rock, and sand.
* Mud-terrain tires have a deeper, more open tread for good grip in mud, than all-terrain tires, but perform less well on pavement.
* High-performance tires are rated for speeds up to and ultra-high-performance tires are rated for speeds up to , but have harsher ride characteristics and durability.
* Electric vehicles have unique demands on tires due to the combination of weight (resulting in new load index), higher torque, and requirements for lower rolling resistance.
Other types of light-duty automotive tires include run-flat tires and race car tires:
*
Run-flat tire
A run-flat tire/tyre is a pneumatic vehicle tire that is designed to resist the effects of deflation when punctured, and to allow the vehicle to continue to be driven at reduced speeds - under – and for limited distances – usually , dependin ...
s eliminates the need for a spare tire because they can be traveled on at a reduced speed in the event of a puncture, using a stiff sidewall to prevent damage to the tire rim.
Vehicles without run-flat tires rely on a spare tire, which may be a compact tire, to replace a damaged tire.
* Race car tires come in three main categories, ''DOT'' (street-legal), ''slick'', and ''rain''. Race car tires are designed to maximize cornering and acceleration friction at the expense of longevity. Racing slicks have no tread to maximize contact with the pavement and rain tires have channels to eject water to avoid
hydroplaning
Aquaplaning or hydroplaning by the tires of a road vehicle, aircraft or other wheeled vehicle occurs when a layer of water builds between the wheels of the vehicle and the road surface, leading to a loss of traction that prevents the vehicle fr ...
.
Heavy duty
![Gianttires ontruck](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Gianttires_ontruck.jpg)
Heavy-duty tires for large trucks and buses come in a variety of profiles and carry loads in the range of on the drive wheel.
These are typically mounted in tandem on the drive axle.
* Truck tires come in a variety of profiles that include "low profile" with a section height that is 70 to 45% of the tread width, "wide-base" for heavy vehicles, and a "super-single" tire that has the same total contact pressure as a dual-mounted tire combination.
* Off-road tires are used on construction vehicles, agricultural and forestry equipment, and other applications that take place on soft terrain. The category also includes machinery that travels over hardened surfaces at industrial sites, ports, and airports. Tires designed for soft terrain have a deep, wide tread to provide traction in loose dirt, mud, sand, or gravel.
Other
Aircraft, bicycles, and a variety of industrial applications have distinct design requirements.
![Boeing-777-300 chassis](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Boeing-777-300_chassis_.jpg)
* Aircraft tires are designed for landing on paved surfaces and rely on their
landing gear
Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft that is used for takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally needed for both. It was also formerly called ''alighting gear'' by some manufacturers, such as the Glenn L. Martin ...
to absorb the shock of landing. To conserve the weight and space required, they are typically small in proportion to the vehicle that they support. Most are radial-ply construction. They are designed for a peak load when the aircraft is stationary, although side loads upon landing are an important factor. Although hydroplaning is a concern for aircraft tires, they typically have radial grooves and no lateral grooves or sipes. Some light aircraft employ large-diameter, low-pressure
tundra tire
A tundra tire (UK: ''tundra tyre'') is a large low-pressure tire used on light aircraft to allow operations on rough terrain.
A common variant of tundra tire is the bushwheel brand. These tires include an integral inner tube with the valve man ...
s for landing on unprepared surfaces in wilderness areas.
*
Bicycle tire
A bicycle tire is a tire that fits on the wheel of a bicycle or similar vehicle. These tires may also be used on tricycles, wheelchairs, and handcycles, frequently for racing. Bicycle tires provide an important source of suspension, generate ...
s may be designed for riding on roads or over unimproved terrain and may be mounted on vehicles with more than two wheels. There are three main types: ''clincher'', ''wired'' and ''tubular''. Most bicycle tires are ''clincher'' and have a bead that presses against the wheel rim. An inner tube provides the air pressure and the contact pressure between bead and wheel rim.
* Industrial tires support such vehicles as forklifts, tractors, excavators, road rollers, and bucket loaders. Those used on smooth surfaces have a smooth tread, whereas those used on soft surfaces typically have large tread features. Some industrial tires are solid or filled with foam.
*
Motorcycle tire
A motorcycle tyre (motorcycle tire in American English) is the outer part of motorcycle wheel, attached to the rim, providing traction, resisting wear, absorbing surface irregularities, and allowing the motorcycle to turn via countersteering. Th ...
s provide traction, resisting wear, absorbing surface irregularities, and allow the
motorcycle
A motorcycle (motorbike, bike, or trike (if three-wheeled)) is a two or three-wheeled motor vehicle steered by a handlebar. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long-distance travel, commuting, cruising ...
to turn via
countersteering
Countersteering is used by single-track vehicle operators, such as cyclists and motorcyclists, to initiate a turn toward a given direction by momentarily steering counter to the desired direction ("steer left to turn right"). To negotiate a turn s ...
. The two tires' contact with the ground affect safety, braking, fuel economy, noise, and rider comfort.
Construction types
![Tire plies](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Tire_plies.png)
Tire construction spans
pneumatic
Pneumatics (from Greek ‘wind, breath’) is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air.
Pneumatic systems used in Industrial sector, industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert gases. A central ...
tires used on cars, trucks, and aircraft, but also includes non-automotive applications with slow-moving, light-duty, or railroad applications, which may have non-pneumatic tires.
Automotive
Following the 1968 ''
Consumer Reports
Consumer Reports (CR), formerly Consumers Union (CU), is an American nonprofit consumer organization dedicated to independent product testing, investigative journalism, consumer-oriented research, public education, and consumer advocacy.
Founded ...
'' announcement of the superiority of the radial design,
radial tire
A radial tire (more properly, a radial-ply tire) is a particular design of vehicular tire. In this design, the cord plies are arranged at 90 degrees to the direction of travel, or radially (from the center of the tire). Radial tire construction ...
s began an inexorable climb in market share, reaching 100% of the North American market in the 1980s.
Radial tire technology is now the standard design for essentially all automotive tires, but other methods have been used.
Radial tire construction utilizes body ply cords extending from the beads and across the tread so that the cords are laid at approximately right angles to the centerline of the tread, and parallel to each other, as well as stabilizer belts directly beneath the tread. The belts may be cord or steel. The advantages of this construction include longer tread life, better steering control, fewer blowouts, improved fuel economy, and lower rolling resistance. Disadvantages of the radial tire are a harder ride at low speeds on rough roads and in the context of off-roading, decreased "self-cleaning" ability, and lower grip ability at low speeds.
tire (or cross ply) construction utilizes body ply cords that extend diagonally from bead to bead, usually at angles in the range of 30 to 40 degrees. Successive plies are laid at opposing angles forming a crisscross pattern to which the tread is applied. The design allows the entire tire body to flex easily, providing the main advantage of this construction, a smooth ride on rough surfaces. This cushioning characteristic also causes the major disadvantages of a bias tire: increased
rolling resistance
Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body (such as a ball, tire, or wheel) rolls on a surface. It is mainly caused by non-elastic effects; that is, not all the energy nee ...
and less control and
traction at higher speeds.
A belted bias tire starts with two or more bias-plies to which stabilizer belts are bonded directly beneath the tread. This construction provides a smoother ride that is similar to the bias tire, while lessening rolling resistance because the belts increase tread stiffness. The design was introduced by Armstrong, while Goodyear made it popular with the "
Polyglas" trademark tire featuring a polyester carcass with belts of fiberglass.
The "belted" tire starts two main plies of polyester, rayon, or nylon annealed as in conventional tires, and then placed on top are circumferential belts at different angles that improve performance compared to non-belted bias tires. The belts may be fiberglass or steel.
Other
Tubeless tire
Tubeless tires ( also spelled as tubeless tyres in Commonwealth English) are pneumatic tires that do not require a separate inner tube.
Unlike pneumatic tires which use a separate inner tube, tubeless tires have continuous ribs molded integral ...
s are pneumatic tires that do not require a separate
inner tube
An inner tube is an inflatable ring that forms the interior of some pneumatic tires. The tube is inflated with a valve stem, and fits inside of the casing of the tire. The inflated inner tube provides structural support and suspension, while the ...
.
Semi-pneumatic tires have a hollow center, but they are not pressurized. They are lightweight, low-cost, puncture-proof, and provide cushioning. These tires often come as a complete assembly with the wheel and even integral
ball bearing
A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain the separation between the bearing races.
The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial loads. It achieves this ...
s. They are used on
lawn mower
A lawn mower (also known as a mower, grass cutter or lawnmower) is a device utilizing one or more revolving blades (or a reel) to cut a grass surface to an even height. The height of the cut grass may be fixed by the design of the mower, but g ...
s,
wheelchair
A wheelchair is a chair with wheels, used when walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, problems related to old age, or disability. These can include spinal cord injuries ( paraplegia, hemiplegia, and quadriplegia), cerebr ...
s, and
wheelbarrow
A wheelbarrow is a small hand-propelled vehicle, usually with just one wheel, designed to be pushed and guided by a single person using two handles at the rear, or by a sail to push the ancient wheelbarrow by wind. The term "wheelbarrow" is mad ...
s. They can also be rugged, typically used in industrial applications, and are designed to not pull off their
rim under use.
An
airless tire
Airless tires, non-pneumatic tires (NPT), or flat-free tires are tires that are not supported by air pressure. They can be used on small vehicles such as riding lawn mowers and motorized golf carts. They also are used on heavy equipment require ...
is a non-pneumatic tire that is not supported by air pressure. They are most commonly used on small vehicles, such as golf carts, and on utility vehicles in situations where the risk of puncture is high, such as on construction equipment. Many tires used in industrial and commercial applications are non-pneumatic, and are manufactured from solid rubber and plastic compounds via molding operations. Solid tires include those used for lawnmowers, skateboards, golf carts,
scooters
Scooter may refer to:
Vehicles
Ground
Human or gravity powered
* Eccentric-hub scooter, propelled by a standing rider making a bouncing motion
* Kick scooter, propelled by a standing rider pushing off the ground
* Knee scooter, a mobility device ...
, and many types of light industrial vehicles, carts, and trailers. One of the most common applications for solid tires is for material handling equipment (forklifts). Such tires are installed by means of a hydraulic tire press.
Wooden wheels for horse-drawn vehicles usually have a
wrought iron
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content (less than 0.08%) in contrast to that of cast iron (2.1% to 4%). It is a semi-fused mass of iron with fibrous slag Inclusion (mineral), inclusions (up to 2% by weight), which give it a ...
tire. This construction was extended to wagons on horse-drawn tramways, rolling on
granite setts or
cast iron rails.
The wheels of some railway engines and older types of rolling stock are fitted with
railway tires
The steel wheel of a steam locomotive and other older types of rolling stock were usually fitted with a steel tire (American English) or tyre (in British English, Australian English and others) to provide a replaceable wearing element on a costly ...
in order to prevent the need to replace the entirety of a wheel. The tire, usually made of steel, surrounds the wheel and is primarily held in place by
interference fit
An interference fit, also known as a pressed fit or friction fit is a form of fastening between two ''tight'' fitting mating parts that produces a joint which is held together by friction after the parts are pushed together.
Depending on the am ...
.
Aircraft tires may operate at pressures that exceed . Some aircraft tires are inflated with
nitrogen
Nitrogen is the chemical element with the symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a nonmetal and the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, often called the pnictogens. It is a common element in the universe, estimated at se ...
to "eliminate the possibility of a chemical reaction between atmospheric oxygen and volatile gases from the tire inner liner producing a tire explosion".
Manufacturing
Pneumatic tires are manufactured in about 450 tire factories around the world. Tire production starts with bulk raw materials such as rubber, carbon black, and chemicals and produces numerous specialized components that are assembled and cured. Many kinds of rubber are used, the most common being
styrene-butadiene
Styrene-butadiene or styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) describe families of synthetic rubbers derived from styrene and butadiene (the version developed by Goodyear is called Neolite). These materials have good abrasion resistance and good aging st ...
copolymer
In polymer chemistry, a copolymer is a polymer derived from more than one species of monomer. The polymerization of monomers into copolymers is called copolymerization. Copolymers obtained from the copolymerization of two monomer species are some ...
.
In 2004, $80 billion of tires were sold worldwide, in 2010 it was $140 billion (approximately 34% growth adjusting for inflation), and is expected to grow to $258 billion per year by 2019.
In 2015, the US manufactured almost 170 million tires. Over 2.5 billion tires are manufactured annually, making the tire industry a major consumer of natural rubber. It is estimated that by 2019, 3 billion tires will be to be sold globally every year.
As of 2011, the top three tire manufacturing companies by revenue were
Bridgestone
is a Japanese multinational tire manufacturer founded in 1931 by Shojiro Ishibashi (1889–1976) in the city of Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan. The name Bridgestone comes from a calque translation and transposition of , meaning 'stone bridge' in Japan ...
(manufacturing 190 million tires),
Michelin
Michelin (; ; full name: ) is a French multinational tyre manufacturing company based in Clermont-Ferrand in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes ''région'' of France. It is the second largest tyre manufacturer in the world behind Bridgestone and la ...
(184 million),
Goodyear (181 million); they were followed by
Continental
Continental may refer to:
Places
* Continent, the major landmasses of Earth
* Continental, Arizona, a small community in Pima County, Arizona, US
* Continental, Ohio, a small town in Putnam County, US
Arts and entertainment
* ''Continental'' (al ...
, and
Pirelli
Pirelli & C. S.p.A. is a multinational tyre manufacturer based in Milan, Italy. The company, which has been listed on the Milan Stock Exchange since 1922, is the 6th-largest tyre manufacturer and is focused on the consumer production of tyre ...
.
The
Lego
Lego ( , ; stylized as LEGO) is a line of plastic construction toys that are manufactured by The Lego Group, a privately held company based in Billund, Denmark. The company's flagship product, Lego, consists of variously colored interlocking ...
group produced over 318 million
toy tires in 2011 and was recognized by
Guinness World Records
''Guinness World Records'', known from its inception in 1955 until 1999 as ''The Guinness Book of Records'' and in previous United States editions as ''The Guinness Book of World Records'', is a reference book published annually, listing world ...
as having the highest annual production of tires by any manufacturer.
Components
![F1 Slick Tires](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/F1_Slick_Tires.jpg)
A tire comprises several components: the tread, bead, sidewall, shoulder, and ply.
Tread
The
tread
Tread may refer to:
Arts and media
* ''Tread'' (film), a 2019 American documentary film about Marvin Heemeyer
* Tread (Transformers)
* Tread, a character in the novel series '' Transformers: The Veiled Threat''
* Tread rap, subgenre of trap that b ...
is the part of the tire that comes in contact with the road surface. The portion that is in contact with the road at a given instant in time is the
contact patch
Contact patch is the portion of a vehicle's tire that is in actual contact with the road surface. It is commonly used in the discussion of pneumatic (i.e. pressurized) tires, where the term is used strictly to describe the portion of the tire’s ...
. The tread is a thick rubber, or rubber/composite compound formulated to provide an appropriate level of traction that does not wear away too quickly.
The tread pattern is characterized by a system of circumferential grooves, lateral sipes, and slots for road tires
or a system of lugs and
voids
Void may refer to:
Science, engineering, and technology
* Void (astronomy), the spaces between galaxy filaments that contain no galaxies
* Void (composites), a pore that remains unoccupied in a composite material
* Void, synonym for vacuum, a s ...
for tires designed for soft terrain or snow. Grooves run circumferentially around the tire, and are needed to channel away water. Lugs are that portion of the tread design that contacts the road surface. Grooves, sipes, and slots allow tires to evacuate water.
The design of treads and the interaction of specific tire types with the roadway surface affects
roadway noise
Roadway noise is the collective sound energy emanating from motor vehicles. It consists chiefly of road surface, tire, engine/transmission, aerodynamic, and braking elements. Noise of rolling tires driving on pavement is found to be the biggest ...
, a source of
noise pollution
Noise pollution, also known as environmental noise or sound pollution, is the propagation of noise with ranging impacts on the activity of human or animal life, most of them are harmful to a degree. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is main ...
emanating from moving vehicles. These sound intensities increase with higher vehicle speeds. Tires treads may incorporate a variety of distances between slots (''pitch lengths'') to minimize noise levels at discrete frequencies. Sipes are slits cut across the tire, usually perpendicular to the grooves, which allow the water from the grooves to escape sideways and mitigate
hydroplaning
Aquaplaning or hydroplaning by the tires of a road vehicle, aircraft or other wheeled vehicle occurs when a layer of water builds between the wheels of the vehicle and the road surface, leading to a loss of traction that prevents the vehicle fr ...
.
Different tread designs address a variety of driving conditions. As the ratio of tire tread area to groove area increases, so does tire friction on dry pavement, as seen on
Formula One tires
Formula One tyres play a significant role in the performance of a Formula One car. The tyres have undergone major changes throughout the history of Formula One with different manufacturers and specifications used in the sport.
Design and usage
F ...
, some of which have no grooves. High-performance tires often have smaller void areas to provide more rubber in contact with the road for higher traction, but may be compounded with softer rubber that provides better traction, but wears quickly. Mud and snow (M&S) tires employ larger and deeper slots to engage mud and snow.
Snow tire
Snow tires, also known as winter tires, are tires designed for use on snow and ice. Snow tires have a tread design with larger gaps than those on conventional tires, increasing traction on snow and ice. Such tires that have passed a specific win ...
s have still larger and deeper slots that compact snow and create shear strength within the compacted snow to improve braking and cornering performance.
Wear bars (or wear indicators) are raised features located at the bottom of the tread grooves that indicate the tire has reached its wear limit. When the tread lugs are worn to the point that the wear bars connect across the lugs, the tires are fully worn and should be taken out of service, typically at a remaining tread depth of .
Other
The
tire bead
Tire bead is the term for the edge of a tire that sits on the wheel. Wheels for automobiles, bicycles, etc. are made with a small slot or groove into which the tire bead sits. When the tire is properly inflated, the air pressure within the tire ...
is the part of the tire that contacts the
rim on the wheel. The bead is typically reinforced with steel wire and compounded of high-strength, low-flexibility rubber. The bead seats tightly against the two rims on the wheel to ensure that a tubeless tire holds air without leakage. The bead fit is tight to ensure the tire does not shift circumferentially as the wheel rotates. The width of the rim in relationship to the tire is a factor in the handling characteristics of an automobile because the rim supports the tire's profile.
The sidewall is that part of the tire, or
bicycle tire
A bicycle tire is a tire that fits on the wheel of a bicycle or similar vehicle. These tires may also be used on tricycles, wheelchairs, and handcycles, frequently for racing. Bicycle tires provide an important source of suspension, generate ...
, that bridges between the tread and bead. The sidewall is largely rubber but reinforced with fabric or steel cords that provide for tensile strength and flexibility. The sidewall contains air pressure and transmits the torque applied by the drive axle to the tread to create traction but supports little of the weight of the vehicle, as is clear from the total collapse of the tire when punctured. Sidewalls are molded with manufacturer-specific detail, government-mandated warning labels, and other consumer information, and sometimes decorative ornamentation, like
whitewalls or
tire lettering
Tire lettering is the practice of putting, or drawing visible letters on the sidewall of an automobile's tires. In modern usage, the lettering is often big car brands or tire brands names, with custom lettering being a much smaller niche of that. I ...
.
The shoulder is that part of the tire at the edge of the tread as it makes the transition to the sidewall.
Plies are layers of relatively inextensible cords embedded in the rubber to hold its shape by preventing the rubber from stretching in response to the internal pressure. The orientations of the plies play a large role in the performance of the tire and is one of the main ways that tires are categorized.
Materials
The materials of modern pneumatic tires can be divided into two groups, the cords that make up the ply and the
elastomer
An elastomer is a polymer with viscoelasticity (i.e. both viscosity and elasticity) and with weak intermolecular forces, generally low Young's modulus and high failure strain compared with other materials. The term, a portmanteau of ''elastic p ...
which encases them.
Cords
The cords, which form the
ply
Ply, Pli, Plies or Plying may refer to:
Common uses
* Ply (layer), typically of paper or wood
** Plywood, made of layers of wood
** Tire ply, a layer of cords embedded in the rubber of a tire
Places
* Plymouth railway station, England, station ...
and
bead
A bead is a small, decorative object that is formed in a variety of shapes and sizes of a material such as stone, bone, shell, glass, plastic, wood, or pearl and with a small hole for threading or stringing. Beads range in size from under ...
and provide the tensile strength necessary to contain the inflation pressure, can be composed of
steel
Steel is an alloy made up of iron with added carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resistant ty ...
, natural fibers such as
cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus ''Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, and can contain minor perce ...
or
silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the coc ...
, or synthetic fibers such as
nylon
Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers composed of polyamides ( repeating units linked by amide links).The polyamides may be aliphatic or semi-aromatic.
Nylon is a silk-like thermoplastic, generally made from petro ...
or
kevlar
Kevlar (para-aramid) is a strong, heat-resistant synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965, the high-strength material was first used commercially in the early 1970s a ...
. Good adhesion between the cords and the rubber is important. To achieve this the steel cords are coated in a thin layer of brass, various additives will also be added to the rubber to improve binding, such as
resorcinol
Resorcinol (or resorcin) is an organic compound with the formula C6H4(OH)2. It is one of three isomeric benzenediols, the 1,3-isomer (or '' meta''-isomer). Resorcinol crystallizes from benzene as colorless needles that are readily soluble in w ...
/
HMMM mixtures.
Elastomer
![ESBR](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/ESBR.png)
The elastomer, which forms the
tread
Tread may refer to:
Arts and media
* ''Tread'' (film), a 2019 American documentary film about Marvin Heemeyer
* Tread (Transformers)
* Tread, a character in the novel series '' Transformers: The Veiled Threat''
* Tread rap, subgenre of trap that b ...
and encases the cords to protect them from abrasion and hold them in place, is a key component of pneumatic tire design. It can be composed of various composites of rubber material – the most common being
styrene-butadiene
Styrene-butadiene or styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) describe families of synthetic rubbers derived from styrene and butadiene (the version developed by Goodyear is called Neolite). These materials have good abrasion resistance and good aging st ...
copolymer – with other chemical compounds such as
silica
Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula , most commonly found in nature as quartz and in various living organisms. In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent of sand. Silica is one ...
and
carbon black
Carbon black (subtypes are acetylene black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black and thermal black) is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of coal and coal tar, vegetable matter, or petroleum products, including fuel oil, fluid ...
.
Optimizing
rolling resistance
Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body (such as a ball, tire, or wheel) rolls on a surface. It is mainly caused by non-elastic effects; that is, not all the energy nee ...
in the elastomer material is a key challenge for reducing fuel consumption in the transportation sector. It is estimated that passenger vehicles consume approximately 5~15% of their fuel to overcome rolling resistance, while the estimate is understood to be higher for heavy trucks. However, there is a trade-off between rolling resistance and wet traction and grip: while low rolling resistance can be achieved by reducing the viscoelastic properties of the rubber compound (low
tangent (δ)), it comes at the cost of wet traction and grip, which requires
hysteresis
Hysteresis is the dependence of the state of a system on its history. For example, a magnet may have more than one possible magnetic moment in a given magnetic field, depending on how the field changed in the past. Plots of a single component of ...
and energy dissipation (high tangent (δ)). A low tangent (δ) value at 60 °C is used as an indicator of low rolling resistance, while a high tangent (δ) value at 0 °C is used as an indicator of high wet traction.
["Dynamic Mechanical Properties Of Passenger And Light Truck Tire Treads". Report No. DOT HS 811 270. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. 2010.] Designing an elastomer material that can achieve both high wet traction and low rolling resistance is key in achieving safety and fuel efficiency in the transportation sector.
The most common elastomer material used today is a
styrene
Styrene () is an organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2. This derivative of benzene is a colorless oily liquid, although aged samples can appear yellowish. The compound evaporates easily and has a sweet smell, although high concen ...
-
butadiene
1,3-Butadiene () is the organic compound with the formula (CH2=CH)2. It is a colorless gas that is easily condensed to a liquid. It is important industrially as a precursor to synthetic rubber. The molecule can be viewed as the union of two viny ...
copolymer. It combines the properties of
polybutadiene
Polybutadiene utadiene rubber BRis a synthetic rubber. Polybutadiene rubber is a polymer formed from the polymerization of the monomer 1,3-butadiene. Polybutadiene has a high resistance to wear and is used especially in the manufacture of tir ...
, which is a highly rubbery polymer (''
Tg'' = -100 °C) having high hysteresis and thus offering good wet grip properties, with the properties of
polystyrene
Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic polymer made from monomers of the aromatic hydrocarbon styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed. General-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight. It is a ...
, which is a glassy polymer (''Tg'' = 100 °C) having low hysteresis and thus offering low rolling resistance in addition to
wear
Wear is the damaging, gradual removal or deformation of material at solid surfaces. Causes of wear can be mechanical (e.g., erosion) or chemical (e.g., corrosion). The study of wear and related processes is referred to as tribology.
Wear in m ...
resistance. Therefore, the ratio of the two monomers in the styrene-butadiene copolymer is considered key in determining the
glass transition temperature
The glass–liquid transition, or glass transition, is the gradual and reversible transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions within semicrystalline materials) from a hard and relatively brittle "glassy" state into a viscous or rubb ...
of the material, which is correlated to its grip and resistance properties.
Non-exhaust emissions of particulate matter, generated by the wearing down of brakes, clutches, tires, and road surfaces, as well as by the suspension of road dust, constitute a little-known but rising share of emissions from road traffic and significantly harm public health.
On the wheel
![Fietband lek zoeken](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Fietband_lek_zoeken.jpg)
Associated components of tires include the wheel on which it is mounted, the valve stem through which air is introduced, and, for some tires, an inner tube that provides the airtight means for maintaining tire pressure.
*''Wheel''— Pneumatic tires are mounted onto
wheel
A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle Bearing (mechanical), bearing. The wheel is one of the key components of the wheel and axle which is one of the Simple machine, six simple machines. Wheels, in conjunction wi ...
s that most often have integral rims on their outer edges to hold the tire. Automotive wheels are typically made from pressed and welded steel, or a composite of lightweight metal
alloy
An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. Unlike chemical compounds with metallic bases, an alloy will retain all the properties of a metal in the resulting material, such as electrical conductivity, ductility, ...
s, such as aluminum or magnesium. There are two aspects to how pneumatic tires support the rim of the wheel on which they are mounted.
First, the tension in the
cords pull on the
bead
A bead is a small, decorative object that is formed in a variety of shapes and sizes of a material such as stone, bone, shell, glass, plastic, wood, or pearl and with a small hole for threading or stringing. Beads range in size from under ...
uniformly around the wheel, except where it is reduced above the contact patch.
Second, the bead transfers that net force to the rim.
Tires are mounted on the wheel by forcing its beads into the channel formed by the wheel's inner and outer rims.
*''Valve stem''— Pneumatic tires receive their air through a
valve stem
A valve stem is a self-contained valve which opens to admit gas to a chamber (such as air to inflate a tire), and is then automatically closed and kept sealed by the pressure in the chamber, or a spring, or both, to prevent the gas from escaping ...
—a tube made of metal or rubber, with a
check valve
A check valve, non-return valve, reflux valve, retention valve, foot valve, or one-way valve is a valve that normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one direction.
Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have t ...
, typically a
Schrader valve
The Schrader valve (also called American valve) is a type of pneumatic tire valve used on virtually every motor vehicle in the world today. The Schrader company, for which it was named, was founded in 1844 by August Schrader. The original Schra ...
on automobiles and most bicycle tires, or a
Presta valve
The Presta valve (also French valve (FV) or Sclaverand valve) is a tire valve commonly found in high pressure road style and some mountain bicycle inner tubes. It comprises an outer valve stem and an inner valve body. A lock nut to secure the s ...
on high-performance bicycles. They mount directly to the rim, in the case of tubeless tires, or are an integral part of the inner tube. Most modern passenger vehicles are now required to have a
tire pressure monitoring system
A tire-pressure monitoring system (TPMS) monitors the air pressure inside the pneumatic tires on vehicles.
A TPMS reports real-time tire-pressure information to the driver, using either a gauge, a pictogram display, or a simple low-pressure wa ...
which usually consists of a valve stem attached to an electronic module.
*''Inner tube''— Most
bicycle tire
A bicycle tire is a tire that fits on the wheel of a bicycle or similar vehicle. These tires may also be used on tricycles, wheelchairs, and handcycles, frequently for racing. Bicycle tires provide an important source of suspension, generate ...
s, many
motorcycle tire
A motorcycle tyre (motorcycle tire in American English) is the outer part of motorcycle wheel, attached to the rim, providing traction, resisting wear, absorbing surface irregularities, and allowing the motorcycle to turn via countersteering. Th ...
s, and many tires for large vehicles such as buses, heavy trucks, and tractors are designed for use with inner tubes. Inner tubes are
torus
In geometry, a torus (plural tori, colloquially donut or doughnut) is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three-dimensional space about an axis that is coplanar with the circle.
If the axis of revolution does not tou ...
-shaped balloons made from an impermeable material, such as soft, elastic synthetic rubber, to prevent air leakage. The inner tubes are inserted into the tire and inflated to retain air pressure. Large inner tubes can be re-used for other purposes, such as swimming and rafting (see
swim ring
A swim ring (also known as a swimming ring, swim tube, rubber ring, water donut, floatie, inner tube, or, in the United States, a lifesaver) is a toroid-shaped (hence the name "ring" or "doughnut") inflatable water toy. The swim ring was derived ...
),
tubing (recreation)
Tubing, also known as inner tubing, bumper tubing, towed tubing, or kite tubing, is a recreational activity where an individual rides on top of an inner tube, either on water, snow, or through the air. The tubes themselves are also known as "donu ...
,
sledding
Sledding, sledging or sleighing is a winter sport typically carried out in a prone or seated position on a vehicle generically known as a sled (North American), a sledge (British), or a sleigh. It is the basis of three Olympic sports: luge, skele ...
, and
skitching
Skitching (abbreviated from "skate-hitching", pron: /ˈskɪtʃɪŋ/) is the act of hitching a ride by holding onto a motor vehicle while riding on a skateboard, roller skates, bicycle, or sneakers when there is snowfall. It is also sometimes ref ...
. Purpose-built inflatable tori are also manufactured for these uses, offering a choice of colors, fabric covering, handles, decks, and other accessories, and eliminating the protruding valve stem.
Performance characteristics
The interactions of a tire with the pavement are complex. A commonly used (empirical) model of tire properties is
Pacejka's "Magic Formula". Some are explained below, alphabetically, by section.
Dynamics
*''Balance''— Wheel-tire combinations require an even distribution of mass around their circumferences to maintain
tire balance
Tire balance, also called tire unbalance or tire imbalance, describes the distribution of mass within an automobile tire or the entire wheel (including the rim) on which it is mounted.
When the wheel rotates, asymmetries in its mass distribution ...
, while turning at speed. Tires are checked at the point of manufacture for excessive static imbalance and dynamic imbalance using automatic tire balance machines. Tires are checked again in the auto assembly plant or tire retail shop after mounting the tire to the wheel. Assemblies that exhibit excessive imbalance are corrected by applying balance weights to the wheels to counteract the tire/wheel imbalance. An alternative method to tire balancing is the use of internal tire balancing agents. These agents take advantage of centrifugal force and inertia to counteract the tire imbalance. To facilitate proper balancing, most high-performance tire manufacturers place red and yellow marks on the sidewalls to enable the best possible match-mounting of the tire/wheel assembly. There are two methods of match-mounting high-performance tire-to-wheel assemblies using these red (uniformity) or yellow (weight) marks.
*''Centrifugal growth''— A tire rotating at higher speeds tends to develop a larger diameter, due to
centrifugal force
In Newtonian mechanics, the centrifugal force is an inertial force (also called a "fictitious" or "pseudo" force) that appears to act on all objects when viewed in a rotating frame of reference. It is directed away from an axis which is paralle ...
s that force the tread rubber away from the axis of rotation. This may cause
speedometer error
A speedometer or speed meter is a gauge (instrument), gauge that measures and displays the instantaneous speed of a vehicle. Now universally fitted to motor vehicles, they started to be available as options in the early 20th century, and as ...
. As the tire
diameter
In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle. Both definitions are also valid for ...
grows, the tire width decreases. This centrifugal growth can cause rubbing of the tire against the vehicle at high speeds.
Motorcycle
A motorcycle (motorbike, bike, or trike (if three-wheeled)) is a two or three-wheeled motor vehicle steered by a handlebar. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long-distance travel, commuting, cruising ...
tires are often designed with reinforcements aimed at minimizing centrifugal growth.
*''Pneumatic trail''—
Pneumatic trail
Pneumatic trail or trail of the tire is a trail-like effect generated by compliant tires rolling on a hard surface and subject to side loads, as in a turn. More technically, it is the distance that the resultant force of side-slip occurs behind the ...
of a tire is the trail-like effect generated by compliant tires rolling on a hard surface and subject to side loads, as in a turn. More technically, it is the distance that the resultant
force
In physics, a force is an influence that can change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (e.g. moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a p ...
of
side-slip
A slip is an aerodynamic state where an aircraft is moving ''somewhat'' sideways as well as forward relative to the oncoming airflow or relative wind. In other words, for a conventional aircraft, the nose will be pointing in the opposite directio ...
occurs behind the geometric center of the
contact patch
Contact patch is the portion of a vehicle's tire that is in actual contact with the road surface. It is commonly used in the discussion of pneumatic (i.e. pressurized) tires, where the term is used strictly to describe the portion of the tire’s ...
.
*''Slip angle''—
Slip angle
In vehicle dynamics, slip angle or sideslip angle is the angle between the direction in which a wheel is pointing and the direction in which it is actually traveling (i.e., the angle between the forward velocity vector v_x and the vector su ...
or sideslip angle is the angle between a rolling wheel's actual direction of travel and the direction towards which it is pointing (i.e., the angle of the vector sum of wheel translational velocity
and sideslip velocity
*''Relaxation length''—
Relaxation length
Relaxation length is a property of pneumatic tires that describes the delay between when a slip angle is introduced and when the cornering force reaches its steady-state value.
It is also described as the distance that a tire rolls before the later ...
is the delay between when a slip angle is introduced and when the cornering force reaches its steady-state value.
*''Spring rate''— Vertical stiffness, or
spring rate
A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy. In everyday use the term often refers to coil springs, but there are many different spring designs. Modern springs are typically manufactured from spring steel, although some non- ...
, is the ratio of vertical force to vertical deflection of the tire, and it contributes to the overall suspension performance of the vehicle. In general, the spring rate increases with inflation pressure.
*''Stopping distance''— Performance-oriented tires have a tread pattern and rubber compounds designed to grip the road surface, and so usually have a slightly shorter stopping distance. However, specific braking tests are necessary for data beyond generalizations.
Forces
*''Camber thrust''—
Camber thrust
Camber thrust and camber force are terms used to describe the force generated perpendicular to the direction of travel of a rolling tire due to its camber angle and finite contact patch. Camber thrust is generated when a point on the outer surface ...
and camber force are the force generated perpendicular to the direction of travel of a rolling tire due to its
camber angle
Camber angle is one of the angles made by the wheels of a vehicle; specifically, it is the angle between the vertical axis of a wheel and the vertical axis of the vehicle when viewed from the front or rear. It is used in the design of steering an ...
and finite contact patch.
*''Circle of forces—'' The
circle of forces
The circle of forces, traction circle, friction circle, or friction ellipse is a useful way to think about the dynamic interaction between a vehicle's tire and the road surface. The diagram below shows the tire from above, so that the road surface ...
, traction circle, friction circle, or friction ellipse is a useful way to think about the dynamic interaction between a vehicle's tire and the road surface.
*''Contact patch''— The
contact patch
Contact patch is the portion of a vehicle's tire that is in actual contact with the road surface. It is commonly used in the discussion of pneumatic (i.e. pressurized) tires, where the term is used strictly to describe the portion of the tire’s ...
, or footprint, of the tire, is the area of the tread that is in contact with the road surface. This area transmits forces between the tire and the road via friction. The length-to-width ratio of the contact patch affects steering and cornering behavior.
*''Cornering force''—
Cornering force
Cornering force or side force is the lateral (i.e., parallel to wheel axis) force produced by a vehicle tire during cornering.
Cornering force is generated by tire slip and is proportional to slip angle at low slip angles. The rate at which ...
or side force is the lateral (i.e. parallel to the road surface) force produced by a vehicle tire during cornering.
*''Dry traction''— Dry traction is the measure of the tire's ability to deliver traction, or grip, under dry conditions. Dry traction is a function of the tackiness of the rubber compound.
*''Force variation''— The tire tread and sidewall elements undergo deformation and recovery as they enter and exit the footprint. Since the rubber is elastomeric, it is deformed during this cycle. As the rubber deforms and recovers, it imparts cyclical forces into the vehicle. These variations are collectively referred to as
tire uniformity
Tire Uniformity refers to the dynamic mechanical properties of pneumatic tires as strictly defined by a set of measurement standards and test conditions accepted by global tire and car makers.
These standards include the parameters of radial fo ...
. Tire uniformity is characterized by
radial force variation (RFV),
lateral force variation
Tires provide for steering, traction, braking, and load support by transmitting forces between the vehicle and the road. Lateral force variation (LFV) is a property of a tire that characterizes its dynamic behavior of these forces. High values of ...
(LFV), and
tangential force variation. Radial and lateral force variation is measured on a
force variation machine at the end of the manufacturing process. Tires outside the specified limits for RFV and LFV are rejected. Geometric parameters, including radial runout, lateral runout, and sidewall bulge, are measured using a tire uniformity machine at the tire factory at the end of the manufacturing process as a quality check.
*''Rolling resistance''—
Rolling resistance
Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body (such as a ball, tire, or wheel) rolls on a surface. It is mainly caused by non-elastic effects; that is, not all the energy nee ...
is the resistance to rolling caused by deformation of the tire in contact with the road surface. As the tire rolls, the tread enters the contact area and is deformed flat to conform to the roadway. The energy required to make the deformation depends on the inflation pressure, rotating speed, and numerous physical properties of the tire structure, such as spring force and stiffness. Tire makers seek lower rolling resistance tire constructions to improve
fuel economy in cars and especially trucks, where rolling resistance accounts for a high proportion of fuel consumption. Pneumatic tires also have a much lower rolling resistance than solid tires. Because the internal air pressure acts in all directions, a pneumatic tire is able to "absorb" bumps in the road as it rolls over them without experiencing a reaction force opposite to the direction of travel, as is the case with a solid (or foam-filled) tire.
*''Self aligning torque— ''
Self-aligning torque, also known as the aligning torque, SAT or Mz, is the
torque
In physics and mechanics, torque is the rotational equivalent of linear force. It is also referred to as the moment of force (also abbreviated to moment). It represents the capability of a force to produce change in the rotational motion of th ...
that a tire creates as it rolls along that tends to steer it, i.e. rotate it around its vertical axis.
*''Wet traction''— Wet traction is the tire's
traction, or grip, under wet conditions. Wet traction is improved by the tread design's ability to channel water out of the tire footprint and reduce
hydroplaning
Aquaplaning or hydroplaning by the tires of a road vehicle, aircraft or other wheeled vehicle occurs when a layer of water builds between the wheels of the vehicle and the road surface, leading to a loss of traction that prevents the vehicle fr ...
. However, tires with a circular cross-section, such as those found on racing bicycles, when properly inflated have a sufficiently small footprint to not be susceptible to hydroplaning. For such tires, it is observed that fully slick tires will give superior traction on both wet and dry pavement.
Load
*''Load sensitivity''—
Load sensitivity is the behavior of tires under load. Conventional pneumatic tires do not behave as
classical friction theory would suggest. Namely, the load sensitivity of most real tires in their typical operating range is such that the coefficient of friction decreases as the vertical load, Fz, increases.
*''Work load''— The work load of a tire is monitored so that it is not put under undue stress, which may lead to its premature failure. Work load is measured in ''Ton Kilometer Per Hour'' (TKPH). The measurement's appellation and units are the same. The recent shortage and increasing cost of tires for
heavy equipment
Heavy equipment or heavy machinery refers to heavy-duty vehicles specially designed to execute construction tasks, most frequently involving earthwork operations or other large construction tasks. ''Heavy equipment'' usually comprises five e ...
has made TKPH an important parameter in tire selection and equipment maintenance for the mining industry. For this reason,
manufacturers of tires for large earth-moving and mining vehicles assign TKPH ratings to their tires based on their size, construction, tread type, and rubber compound. The rating is based on the weight and speed that the tire can handle without overheating and causing it to deteriorate prematurely. The equivalent measure used in the United States is ''Ton Mile Per Hour'' (TMPH).
Wear
Tire wear is a major source of rubber pollution. A concern hereby is that vehicle tire wear pollution is unregulated, unlike exhaust emissions.
![Tire Severe Under Inflation Wear](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Tire_Severe_Under_Inflation_Wear.jpg)
;Tread wear: This occurs through normal contact with roads or terrain; there are several types of abnormal tread wear. Poor
wheel alignment
Wheel alignment sometimes referred to as breaking, or tracking is part of standard automobile maintenance that consists of adjusting the angles of wheels to the car manufacturer specifications. The purpose of these adjustments is to reduce tire ...
can cause excessive wear of the innermost or outermost ribs. Gravel roads, rocky terrain, and other rough terrain cause accelerated wear. Over-inflation above the sidewall maximum can cause excessive wear to the center of the tread. Modern tires have steel belts built in to prevent this. Under-inflation causes excessive wear to the outer ribs. Unbalanced wheels can cause uneven tire wear, as the rotation may not be perfectly circular. Tire manufacturers and car companies have mutually established standards for tread wear testing that include measurement parameters for tread loss profile, lug count, and heel-toe wear.
;Tread wear indicators (T.W.I.): Raised bars in the tread channels, which indicate that the tread is becoming worn and therefore unsafe. Indicators have been required on all new tires since 1968 in the US. In many countries the Highway Code forbids driving on public roads when the contact surface is flush with any of these bars - this is often defined when the groove depth is approximately 1.5 or 1.6 mm (2/32 inch). TWI can also be used to refer to small arrows or icons on the tire sidewall, indicating the location of the raised wear bars.
;Damage by aging: Tire aging or "thermo-oxidative degradation" can be caused by time, ambient and operating temperatures, partial pressure of O2 in a tire, flex fatigue, or construction and compounding characteristics. For example, prolonged UV exposure leads to rubber's chemicals warping, potentially causing dry rot. Various storage methods may slow the aging process, but will not eliminate tire degradation.
Sizes, codes, standards, and regulatory agencies
![Tire_code_-_en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Tire_code_-_en.svg)
Automotive tires have a variety of identifying markings molded onto the sidewall as a
tire code
Automotive tires are described by an alphanumeric tire code (in North American English) or tyre code (in Commonwealth English), which is generally molded into the sidewall of the tire. This code specifies the dimensions of the tire, and some o ...
. They denote size, rating, and other information pertinent to that individual tire.
Americas
The National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is a U.S. government body within the United States Department of Transportation, Department of Transportation (DOT) tasked with regulating automotive safety in the United States.
["49 CFR 574.5 - Tire identification requirements."](_blank)
NHTSA established the Uniform Tire Quality Grading System (UTQG), is a system for comparing the performance of tires according to the Code of Federal Regulations 49 CFR 575.104; it requires labeling of tires for tread wear, traction, and temperature. The DOT Code is an alphanumeric character sequence molded into the sidewall of the tire and allows the identification of the tire and its age. The code is mandated by the United States Department of Transportation, U.S. Department of Transportation
but is used worldwide. The DOT Code is also useful in identifying tires subject to product recall or at end of life due to age. The ''Tire and Rim Association'' (T&RA) is a voluntary U.S. standards organization that promotes the interchangeability of tires, rims, and allied parts. Of particular interest, they publish key tire dimensions, rim contour dimensions, tire valve dimension standards, and load/inflation standards.
The National Institute of Metrology Standardization and Industrial Quality (INMETRO) is the Brazilian federal body responsible for automotive wheel and tire certification.
Europe
The European Tyre and Rim Technical Organisation (ETRTO) is the European standards organization "to establish engineering dimensions, load/pressure characteristics and operating guidelines". All tires sold for road use in Europe after July 1997 must carry an E-mark. The mark itself is either an upper case "E" or lower case "e" – followed by a number in a circle or rectangle, followed by a further number. An (upper case) "E" indicates that the tire is certified to comply with the dimensional, performance, and marking requirements of ECE regulation 30. A (lowercase) "e" indicates that the tire is certified to comply with the dimensional, performance, and marking requirements of Directive 92/23/EEC. The number in the circle or rectangle denotes the country code of the government that granted the type approval. The last number outside the circle or rectangle is the number of the type approval certificate issued for that particular tire size and type.
The Rubber Manufacturers Association#British Rubber Manufacturers Association, British Rubber Manufacturers Association (BRMA) recommended practice, issued June 2001, states, "BRMA members strongly recommend that unused tires should not be put into service if they are over six years old and that all tires should be replaced ten years from the date of their manufacture."
Asia
The ''Japanese Automobile Tire Manufacturers Association'' (JATMA) is the Japanese standards organization for tires, rims, and valves. It performs similar functions as the T&RA and ETRTO.
The ''China Compulsory Certification'' (CCC) is a mandatory certification system concerning product safety in China that went into effect in August 2002. The CCC certification system is operated by the State General Administration for Quality Supervision and Inspection and Quarantine of the People's Republic of China (AQSIQ) and the Certification and Accreditation Administration of the People's Republic of China (CNCA).
Maintenance
![Niger, Kodo (8), tire repair shop](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Niger%2C_Kodo_%288%29%2C_tire_repair_shop.jpg)
To maintain tire health, several actions are appropriate, tire rotation, wheel alignment, and, sometimes, retreading the tire.
*''Rotation''— Tires may exhibit irregular wear patterns once installed on a vehicle and partially worn. Front-wheel drive vehicles tend to wear the front tires at a greater rate compared to the rear tires. Tire rotation is moving the tires to different car positions, such as front-to-rear, in order to even out the wear, with the objective of extending the life of the tire.
*''Alignment''— Wheel alignment helps prevent wear by having the tire rotate in a direction, other than the path of the vehicle. When mounted on the vehicle, the wheel and tire may not be perfectly aligned to the direction of travel, and therefore may exhibit irregular wear. If the discrepancy in alignment is large, then the irregular wear will become substantial if left uncorrected. Wheel alignment is the procedure for checking and correcting this condition through adjustment of Camber angle, camber, Caster angle, caster, and Toe (automotive), toe angles. The adjustment of the angles should be done as per the OEM specifications.
Inflation
![Rolling resistance vs inflation -- NHTSA The Pneumatic Tire](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Rolling_resistance_vs_inflation_--_NHTSA_The_Pneumatic_Tire.png)
Inflation is key to proper wear and rolling resistance of pneumatic tires. Many vehicles have monitoring systems to assure proper inflation.
*''Specification''— Tires are specified by the vehicle manufacturer with a recommended cold inflation pressure, which permits safe operation within the specified load rating and vehicle loading. Most tires are stamped with a maximum pressure rating. However, for passenger vehicles and light trucks, a decal just inside the driver's door and the vehicle owner's handbook provide guidance on proper inflation.
*''Ground contact''— The tire contact patch is readily changed by both over- and underinflation. Overinflation may increase the wear on the center contact patch, and underinflation will cause a concave tread, resulting in less center contact, though the overall contact patch will still be larger. Most modern tires will wear evenly at high tire pressures, but will degrade prematurely if underinflated. Increased tire pressure may decrease rolling resistance, and may also result in shorter stopping distances If tire pressure is too low, the tire contact patch is greatly increased. This increases rolling resistance, tire flexing, and friction between the road and the tire. Under-inflation can lead to tire overheating, premature tread wear, and tread separation in severe cases.
*''Monitoring''— Tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS) are electronic systems that monitor the tire pressures on individual wheels on a vehicle and alert the driver when the pressure goes below a warning limit. There are several types of designs to monitor tire pressure. Some actually measure the air pressure, and some make indirect measurements, such as gauging when the relative size of the tire changes due to lower air pressure.
Hazards
![Flat tire 2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Flat_tire_2.jpg)
Tire hazards may occur from failure of the tire, itself, or from loss of traction on the surface over which it is rolling.
Failure
Tires may fail for any of a variety of reasons, including:
* ''Belt Separation''— Belt separation may be belt-to-belt, tread and belt, or separation of the edge of the belt. Belt-to-belt separation may occur having the tire deflect too much, from high pavement temperatures, road hazard impacts, or other causes that have to do with maintenance and storage.
* ''Non-Belt Separations''—Non-Belt Separations include those at the tire tread, in the bead area, in the lower sidewall, between reinforcing plies, and of the reinforcing steel or fabric materials.
* Other—Other types of failure include run-flat damage, chemical degradation, cracking, indentations and bulges
Loss of traction
* ''Melting rubber''— As tire rubber compounds heat, owing to the friction of stopping, cornering, or accelerating, they may begin to melt, lubricate the tire-road contact area, and become deposited on the pavement. This effect is stronger with increased ambient temperature.
* ''Hydroplaning''— Motor vehicles or aircraft tires passing over a wet pavement may lose contact with sufficient speed or water depth for a given tread design. In this case, the tire contact area is riding on a film of water and loses the friction needed for braking or cornering and begins to ''Aquaplaning, hydroplane'' (or ''aquaplane''). Hydroplaning may occur as ''dynamic'' hydroplaning where standing water is present with a depth of at least above the texture of the pavement and speed is sustained above a threshold level. It may also occur as ''viscous'' hydroplaning whereby tire rubber melts for a brief interval and causes slippage; this may leave deposits of rubber on the landing portion of a runway. Dynamic hydroplaning causes decreased friction and contact with increased tire speed.
* ''Snow''— The degree to which a tire can maintain traction in snow depends on its ability to compact snow, which material then develops strength against slippage along a shear plane parallel to the contact area of the tire on the ground. At the same time, the bottom of the tire treads compress the snow on which they are bearing, also creating friction. The process of compacting snow within the treads requires it to be expelled in time for the tread to compact snow anew on the next rotation. The compaction/contact process works both in the direction of travel for propulsion and braking, but also laterally for cornering.
* ''Ice''— Ice is typically close to its melting point when a tire travels over it. This, combined with a smooth texture, promotes a low coefficient of friction and reduced traction during braking, cornering or acceleration.
* ''Soft ground''— Soil can become lubricated with water, which reduces its ability to maintain shear strength when a tire tries to apply force in acceleration, braking or cornering. Dry sand also has low shear strength, owing to poor cohesiveness among sand particles.
End of use
![Tires recycled into water tanks on roof](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Tires_recycled_into_water_tanks_on_roof._Cherchen%2C_Xinjiang.jpg)
Once tires are discarded, they are considered scrap tires. Scrap tires are often re-used for things from bumper car barriers to weights to hold down tarps. Tires are not desired at landfills, due to their large volumes and 75% void space, which quickly consumes valuable space. Rubber tires are likely to contain some traces of Heavy metal (chemistry), heavy metals or other serious pollutants, but these are tightly bonded within the actual rubber compound so they are unlikely to be hazardous unless the tire structure is seriously damaged by fire or strong chemicals. Some facilities are permitted to recycle scrap tires through chipping, and processing them into new products, or selling the material to licensed power plants for fuel. Some tires may also be retreaded for re-use.
Environmental issues
Americans generate about 285 million scrap tires per year. Many states have regulations as to the number of scrap tires that can be held on-site, due to concerns with dumping, fire hazards, and mosquitoes. In the past, millions of tires have been discarded into open fields. This creates a breeding ground for mosquitoes, since the tires often hold water inside and remain warm enough for mosquito breeding. Mosquitoes create a nuisance and may increase the likelihood of spreading disease. It also creates a fire danger, since such a large tire pile is a lot of fuel. Some tire fires have burned for months, since water does not adequately penetrate or cool the burning tires. Tires have been known to liquefy, releasing hydrocarbons and other contaminants to the ground and even groundwater, under extreme heat and temperatures from a fire. The black smoke from a tire fire causes air pollution and is a hazard to downwind properties.
The use of scrap tire chips for landscaping has become controversial, due to the leaching of metals and other contaminants from the tire pieces. Zinc is concentrated (up to 2% by weight) to levels high enough to be highly toxic to aquatic life and plants. Of particular concern is evidence that some of the compounds that leach from tires into water, contain hormone disruptors and cause liver lesions.
Tires are a major source of Microplastics, microplastic pollution.
Retreading
Tires that are fully worn can be retreaded, re-manufactured to replace the worn tread. This is known as retreading or recapping, a process of buffing away the worn tread and applying a new tread. There are two main processes used for retreading tires, called mold-cure and pre-cure methods. Both processes start with the inspection of the tire, followed by non-destructive inspection method such as shearography to locate non-visible damage and embedded Road debris, debris and nails. Some casings are repaired and some are discarded. Tires can be retreaded multiple times if the casing is in usable condition. Tires used for short delivery vehicles are retreaded more than long haul tires over the life of the tire body. Casings fit for retreading have the old tread buffed away to prepare for retreading.
During the retreading process, retread technicians must ensure the casing is in the best condition possible to minimize the possibility of a casing failure. Casings with problems such as capped tread, tread separation, irreparable cuts, corroded belts or sidewall damage, or any run-flat or skidded tires, will be rejected. The mold cure method involves the application of raw rubber on the previously buffed and prepared casing, which is later cured in matrices. During the curing period, vulcanization takes place and the raw rubber bonds to the casing, taking the tread shape of the matrix. On the other hand, the pre-cure method involves the application of a ready-made tread band on the buffed and prepared casing, which later is cured in an autoclave so that vulcanization can occur.
Recycling
Tires can be recycled into, among other things, the hot melt asphalt, typically as crumb rubber modifier—recycled asphalt pavement (CRM—RAP), and as an aggregate in portland cement concrete. Shredded tires can create rubber mulch on playgrounds to diminish fall injuries. There are some "green" buildings that are being made both private and public buildings that are made from old tires.
The tire pyrolysis method for recycling used tires is a technique that heats whole or shredded tires in a reactor vessel containing an Hypoxia (environmental), oxygen-free atmosphere and a heat source. In the reactor, the
rubber
Rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, ''caucho'', or ''caoutchouc'', as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Thailand, Malaysia, and ...
is softened after which the rubber polymers continuously break down into smaller molecules.
Other uses
![Three Boys on a Tire Swing](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Three_Boys_on_a_Tire_Swing.JPG)
Other downstream uses have been developed for worn-out tires, including:
* ''Building elements''— Tires filled with earth have been used as garden containers house foundations, bullet-proof walls and to prevent soil erosion in flood plains.
* ''Recreational equipment''— Used tires are employed as exercise equipment for athletic programs such as American football. One classic conditioning drill that hones players' speed and agility is the "Tire Run" where tires are laid out side by side, with each tire on the left a few inches ahead of the tire on the right in a zigzag pattern. Athletes then run through the tire pattern by stepping in the center of each tire. The drill forces athletes to lift their feet above the ground higher than normal to avoid tripping on the tires. Old tires are sometimes converted into a Swing (seat), swing for play.
See also
* Dry steering
* List of inflatable manufactured goods
* Off-road tire
* Outline of tires
* Rubber-tyred metro
* Rubber-tyred trams
References
External links
National Highway Traffic Safety Adm "Tire Safety" BrochureU.S. Government tire rating and maintenance site.
{{Authority control
Tires,
Auto parts
Rubber
Scottish inventions