The Beylik of Constantine ( ar, بايلك قسنطينة, Bâylik Qasentina), Beylik of the Sunrise or Beylik of the East ( ar, بيليك الشرق, Bâylik Ash-sharq or ) as was its official designation, was one of the three Beyliks of the
Regency of Algiers
The Regency of Algiers ( ar, دولة الجزائر, translit=Dawlat al-Jaza'ir) was a state in North Africa lasting from 1516 to 1830, until it was conquered by the French. Situated between the regency of Tunis in the east, the Sultanate o ...
(the other two being the
Beylik of Titteri
The Beylik of Titteri, (in arabic : ''bâylik at-Tîtrî)'', was one of the three permanent Beyliks of the Regency of Algiers, the other two being the Western Beylik, and the Beylik of Constantine. It was established in 1546 and was ended during t ...
, also known as the Beylik of
Médéa
Médéa ( ber, Lemdiyyet, ar, المدية ''al-Madiya''), population 123,535 (1998 census) is the capital city of Médéa Province, Algeria. It is located roughly 68 km south of Algiers.
The present-day city is situated on the site of ...
, and the
Beylik of the West
The Beylik of the West (in Arabic: ''bâylik al-gharb'') was one of three Beyliks (governorates) of the Regency of Algiers, with the other two being the Beylik of Titteri and the Beylik of Constantine. It was established in 1563, and it was ended ...
, also known as the Beylik of the Sunset).
The region liberated itself from the
Hafsid
The Hafsids ( ar, الحفصيون ) were a Sunni Muslim dynasty of Berber descentC. Magbaily Fyle, ''Introduction to the History of African Civilization: Precolonial Africa'', (University Press of America, 1999), 84. who ruled Ifriqiya (western ...
Emirate of Béjaïa in the early 16th century, and constituted itself around
Constantine
Constantine most often refers to:
* Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I
* Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria
Constantine may also refer to:
People
* Constantine (name), a masculine given na ...
in the mid to late 16th century. The Beylik collapsed in the
1837 siege of Constantine during the
French conquest of Algeria
The French invasion of Algeria (; ) took place between 1830 and 1903. In 1827, an argument between Hussein Dey, the ruler of the Deylik of Algiers, and the French consul escalated into a blockade, following which the July Monarchy of France inva ...
. The
Constantine department was formed upon the bases of the Beylik in 1848.
History
The Beylik of the East was the most important and the richest of the three Beyliks of the
Regency of Algiers
The Regency of Algiers ( ar, دولة الجزائر, translit=Dawlat al-Jaza'ir) was a state in North Africa lasting from 1516 to 1830, until it was conquered by the French. Situated between the regency of Tunis in the east, the Sultanate o ...
. The Bey usually made his residence there in
Constantine
Constantine most often refers to:
* Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I
* Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria
Constantine may also refer to:
People
* Constantine (name), a masculine given na ...
. The city is built on a plateau, surrounded on three sides by a deep ravine at the bottom of which flows the
Rhumel River
The Rhumel River (also Rhummel, Rummel, El-Kebîrl; Arabic: وادي الرمال) is the largest river in the Constantine region of Algeria.
Geography
The source of the Rhumel river is in the Ferdjioua (Mila) mountains. From there it meanders th ...
.
The period extending from 1514 to 1648 saw the end of Constantine's dependence on the
Hafsids of Tunis and its definitive attachment to the central power of Algiers in the 1530s. Control of the entire province is acquired only after clashes with the powerful tribal confederations of the region.
In the 18th century, Constantine experienced a period of great political stability, thanks in particular to the succession of a few energetic governors and competent administrators: Hasan Bey "Bou Kemia" (1713–1736), Hassan Bey Bou-Hanek (1736–1754), Hussein Bey Zereg-Aïnou (1754–1756), Ahmed Bey el Kolli (1756–1771) and especially
Salah Bey (1771–1792), who is considered the most remarkable governor of the province. It was a period marked by the consolidation of the government, urban development works, internal expeditions to maintain order as well as several victorious expeditions against
Tunis
''Tounsi'' french: Tunisois
, population_note =
, population_urban =
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, population_density_km2 =
, timezone1 = CET
, utc_offset1 ...
during the
Tunisian–Algerian Wars.
Most of the wealth of the Beylik came from the levies on agricultural production. The agents of the administration maintained their provision at the prices of privileges granted to the local urban and rural elites. The city's ''
ulamas'' didn't hesitate to legislate according to their interests and new alliances were also made through strategies of common marital practices among large families. Thus, Ahmed Bey el Kolli had married one of the Bengana daughters and, in the second marriage, a daughter of the Mokrani family.
Ali Bey married his three daughters to the
Mokranis. The mother of the last Bey was a Bengana and he had married one of the daughters of the Mokrani too.
In addition, intrigues linked to power and maintained by the rivalries and ambitions of the contenders for the various government posts. The Beylik had experienced many popular revolts due to the rigours of the fiscal pressure in addition to socio-economic difficulties. This instability was correlated with the economic situation, agricultural production, periods of drought, famines and diseases.
After the
capture of Algiers by the
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
in 1830, the Constantinians invested power in
Ahmed Bey
Ahmad ( ar, أحمد, ʾAḥmad) is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other spellings of the name include Ahmed and Ahmet.
Etymology
The word derives from the root (ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from the ve ...
, who organized the fight against the French troops. It took two sieges to overcome the resistance of the inhabitants of the city, which
fell in 1837. Afterwards,
Ahmed Bey
Ahmad ( ar, أحمد, ʾAḥmad) is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other spellings of the name include Ahmed and Ahmet.
Etymology
The word derives from the root (ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from the ve ...
found refuge in the
Aurès Mountains
The Aures Mountains ( ar, جبال الأوراس) are an eastern prolongation of the Atlas Mountain System that lies to the east of the Saharan Atlas in northeastern Algeria and northwestern Tunisia, North Africa. The mountain range gives its nam ...
and continued the struggle until he surrendered in 1848.
Population
The Beylik of Constantine was the most populated of three Beylik of the Regency, it brought together nearly two-thirds of the
Algerian population.
The tribes and families of large tents, allied with the authorities, shared power through a game of balance, symbolized by the investiture with a caftan that the tribal chiefs received after the Bey. In Constantine, the city notables took an active part in the management of affairs and owned large agricultural land in the cereal crown around the city.
The rural populations were divided into ''arch'' (tribes), made up of ''kharouba'' (fractions of tribes) which were subdivided into ''douars''. The
Zouaoua
Igawawen or Gawawa, mostly known as Zwawa (in Kabyle: Igawawen, in Arabic: زواوة, and in Latin: Jubaleni''Revue archéologique, Société française d'archéologie classique'' (in French), p. 28) were a group of Kabyle tribes inhabiting the ...
and
Ferdjioua tribes and other mountain populations escaped the authority of the Bey. Several tribes had a nomadic or semi-nomadic culture in the south, which constituted the most important part of the Beylik, including the
Haraktas, the Seghnia, and the Oulad Sultan.
Among the important tribes of the western region, we could distinguish the Telaghma, the Oulad Abdenour, the Amar Gheraba and the
Medjana
Medjana is a town and commune (municipality) in Bordj Bou Arréridj Province, Algeria. It is the (approximative) location the Ancient city and bishopric Vardimissa, which remains a Latin Catholic titular see.
According to the 1998 census it has ...
, guardians of the
Bibans
The Bibans or Biban Range ( ar, البيبان, Kabylian: ''Tiggoura'', french: Chaîne des Bibans or ''Les Bibans'') are a chain of mountains in northern Algeria, bordering the south of Kabylie.
Geography
The highest summits are 1862 m high Man ...
. East of Constantine, we could have found the Oulad Zenati, the
Hanancha, the Nementcha and the Amar Cheraga.
The Turkish ethnic element played only a negligible role, the number of
Turks
Turk or Turks may refer to:
Communities and ethnic groups
* Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic languages
* Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
* Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic o ...
who were installed there always remained very small: the permanent garrison of the province comprised only 300 men. They were mainly present in Constantine and in the garrison towns, it was the same as the
Kouloughlis
Kouloughlis, also spelled Koulouglis, Cologhlis and Qulaughlis (from Turkish ''Kuloğlu'' "Children of The Empire Servants" from ''Kul'' "soldier" or "servant/slave" + '' Oğlu'' "son of"), but the translation of the word "kul" as slave is misleadi ...
. A Jewish population was also noted in the towns of the Beylik.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Constantine had between 25 and 30,000 inhabitants, alongside the indigenous population of urban origin known as ''Hadar'', the city attracted populations from the interior of Algeria, known as ''barrâniyya'', composed mainly of
Kabyles
The Kabyle people ( kab, Izwawen or ''Leqbayel'' or ''Iqbayliyen'', ) are a Berber ethnic group indigenous to Kabylia in the north of Algeria, spread across the Atlas Mountains, east of Algiers. They represent the largest Berber-speaking pop ...
and
Biskris.
Annaba
Annaba ( ar, عنّابة, "Place of the Jujubes"; ber, Aânavaen), formerly known as Bon, Bona and Bône, is a seaport city in the northeastern corner of Algeria, close to the border with Tunisia. Annaba is near the small Seybouse River ...
was one of the cities of the pre-colonial era with a population of over 10,000 inhabitants, the other cities having only a smaller population.
Geography
The province of Constantine had a vast territory, it was bounded on the north by the
Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...
, and on the south by the
Saharan desert
, photo = Sahara real color.jpg
, photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972
, map =
, map_image =
, location =
, country =
, country1 =
, ...
, on the east by the
Regency of Tunis and on the west by the
Beylik of Titteri
The Beylik of Titteri, (in arabic : ''bâylik at-Tîtrî)'', was one of the three permanent Beyliks of the Regency of Algiers, the other two being the Western Beylik, and the Beylik of Constantine. It was established in 1546 and was ended during t ...
, separated by the chain of
Bibans
The Bibans or Biban Range ( ar, البيبان, Kabylian: ''Tiggoura'', french: Chaîne des Bibans or ''Les Bibans'') are a chain of mountains in northern Algeria, bordering the south of Kabylie.
Geography
The highest summits are 1862 m high Man ...
in the northern part of their frontier from the
Kabyle Kingdoms of
Ait Abbas and
Kuku.
It measured approximately 430 km in its greatest length and 330 km in average width. The coast of the province, from
Béjaïa
Béjaïa (; ; ar, بجاية, Latn, ar, Bijāya, ; kab, Bgayet, Vgayet), formerly Bougie and Bugia, is a Mediterranean port city and commune on the Gulf of Béjaïa in Algeria; it is the capital of Béjaïa Province, Kabylia. Béjaïa is ...
to
Annaba
Annaba ( ar, عنّابة, "Place of the Jujubes"; ber, Aânavaen), formerly known as Bon, Bona and Bône, is a seaport city in the northeastern corner of Algeria, close to the border with Tunisia. Annaba is near the small Seybouse River ...
, is mountainous.
Constantine
Constantine most often refers to:
* Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I
* Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria
Constantine may also refer to:
People
* Constantine (name), a masculine given na ...
, the seat of the Beylik, was the most important city, followed by Annaba, the other cities were
Jijel
Jijel ( ar, جيجل), the classical Igilgili, is the capital of Jijel Province in north-eastern Algeria. It is flanked by the Mediterranean Sea in the region of Corniche Jijelienne and had a population of 131,513 in 2008.
Jijel is the administra ...
,
Collo
Collo ( ar, القل, links=, lit=, translit=al-Qull) was an ancient Roman– a city of the Ottoman empire and Berber. Located in the northern Skikda Province, Algeria. It was the capital and one of three municipalities of Collo District, and ...
, Béjaïa,
Mila,
M'Sila
M'sila (also spelled Msila) ( ar, المسيلة); is the capital of M'Sila Province, Algeria, and is co-extensive with M'sila District. It has a population of 132,975 as per the 2008 census. M'sila University is also located in this city.
Hist ...
,
Tebessa and
Biskra
Biskra ( ar, بسكرة ; ; Latin Vescera) is the capital city of Biskra Province, Algeria. In 2007, its population was recorded as 307,987. Biskra is located in northeastern Algeria, about 248 miles (400 km) from Algiers, 71 miles (115&nbs ...
.
Organization of the Beylik
Administration of the province
The highest authority in the Beylik was the Bey of Constantine who was appointed by the
Dey of Algiers
Dey (Arabic: داي), from the Turkish honorific title ''dayı'', literally meaning uncle, was the title given to the rulers of the Regency of Algiers (Algeria), Tripoli,Bertarelli (1929), p. 203. and Tunis under the Ottoman Empire from 1671 on ...
, among the
Ottoman and
Kouloughlis
Kouloughlis, also spelled Koulouglis, Cologhlis and Qulaughlis (from Turkish ''Kuloğlu'' "Children of The Empire Servants" from ''Kul'' "soldier" or "servant/slave" + '' Oğlu'' "son of"), but the translation of the word "kul" as slave is misleadi ...
especially, the Beys exercised an autonomous power in the provinces which were entrusted to them.
The Bey was assisted by a number of administrators (who could also have a military role) including:
* The ''Khalifah'': was the bey's deputy and had for functions; ensure the collection of taxes and control the
Qaids. It had tribes as its prerogative and could use the militia;
* The ''Agha es sbaihia'': had the command of the provincial troops and had a cavalry made up of the fractions of the
douars around Constantine;
* The ''Bach katib'': was a kind of secretary general who ensured the important correspondence with the
Pasha of Algiers and the
Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( ota, باب عالی, Bāb-ı Ālī or ''Babıali'', from ar, باب, bāb, gate and , , ), was a synecdoche for the central government of the Ottoman Empire.
History
The nam ...
;
* The ''Bach mekaheli'': was the head of the bey's private guard;
* The ''Bach serradj'': was the head of the bey's stables;
* The ''Bach alam'': was the leader of the standard bearers;
* The ''Bach khazbadji'': was the overseer of the money transport convoys;
* The ''Khodja al-khil'': was in charge of the march of horses and mules.
Administration of Constantine
Constantine had truly urban authorities. There was an employee called Qaid ed-dar with "municipal" attributions, in charge of the administration and the police of the city, he had a large number of municipal officials:
* The ''Qaid el-Bab'', collected the duties of grant and customs;
* The ''Qaid es-souk'', controlled the markets;
* The ''Qaid ez-zebel'', was in charge of the cleanliness;
* The ''Qaid el-Casba'', was in charge of the city police, particularly during the night;
* The ''Amines'' or trustees of the trade corporations, were responsible for supervising the workers and settling disputes;
* The ''Oukil bit el-mal'', administered the vacant estates for the benefit of the poor;
* The ''Mokkadem'', was the head of the Jews;
* A ''Berrah'', announced official decisions.
The local families played, throughout the
Ottoman era
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
, an active role and where they animated the parties which shared the city.
Civil justice was exercised through the care of two
Qadis
A qāḍī ( ar, قاضي, Qāḍī; otherwise transliterated as qazi, cadi, kadi, or kazi) is the magistrate or judge of a '' sharīʿa'' court, who also exercises extrajudicial functions such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and mino ...
, one
Malekite and one
Hanafite
The Hanafi school ( ar, حَنَفِية, translit=Ḥanafiyah; also called Hanafite in English), Hanafism, or the Hanafi fiqh, is the oldest and one of the four traditional major Sunni schools (maddhab) of Islamic Law (Fiqh). It is named afte ...
. The two Qadis, the
Muftis, the ''Adouls'', made up the ''Medjelés''. This tribunal met every Friday and tried the most serious cases. It was chaired by the Bey or by the ''Qaid ed-dar''.
Constantine had about a hundred religious establishments, including many mosques. Each mosque was attached by an
Imam
Imam (; ar, إمام '; plural: ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a worship leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Islamic worship services, lead prayers, ser ...
, several
Talibes
A talibé (also spelled ''talibe'', plural ''talibés''; ar, طالب, ṭālib, seeker, 'student'; pl. ) is a boy, usually from Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Chad, Mali or Mauritania, who studies the Quran at a daara (West African ...
, a
Muezzin
The muezzin ( ar, مُؤَذِّن) is the person who proclaims the call to the daily prayer ( ṣalāt) five times a day (Fajr prayer, Zuhr prayer, Asr prayer, Maghrib prayer and Isha prayer) at a mosque. The muezzin plays an important role ...
, a ''Sheikh an-nadher'' (administrator of
Habus
The Habus (singular Al Habsi) are a tribe of Ras Al Khaimah, in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). They mostly settled the area around Khatt, Fahlain and the Hajar Mountain wadis to the East of the city of Ras Al Khaimah. They are often associated wi ...
property) and ''ukils'' or agents responsible for the management of the cult. The ''Sheikh al-Islam'', considered the leader of the religion, who also bore the title of ''Amir rakb al-hajj'' (standard bearer of the pilgrimage caravan) is a major political and religious institution in local life, which has evolved a lot. Before the Ottoman period, it was the role of the Abdal-Muman family, then it passed to the Lefgoun family in 1572, where it remained until the
colonial conquest.
Public Force
The Bey had a
militia
A militia () is generally an army or some other fighting organization of non-professional soldiers, citizens of a country, or subjects of a state, who may perform military service during a time of need, as opposed to a professional force of r ...
made up of
Turks
Turk or Turks may refer to:
Communities and ethnic groups
* Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic languages
* Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
* Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic o ...
and
Kouloughlis
Kouloughlis, also spelled Koulouglis, Cologhlis and Qulaughlis (from Turkish ''Kuloğlu'' "Children of The Empire Servants" from ''Kul'' "soldier" or "servant/slave" + '' Oğlu'' "son of"), but the translation of the word "kul" as slave is misleadi ...
. It was divided into ''nuba'' service (garrison) and ''mahalla'' service (expeditionary column). The ''nubas'' were divided into 22 ''sefra'' in the cities of
Constantine
Constantine most often refers to:
* Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I
* Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria
Constantine may also refer to:
People
* Constantine (name), a masculine given na ...
,
Annaba
Annaba ( ar, عنّابة, "Place of the Jujubes"; ber, Aânavaen), formerly known as Bon, Bona and Bône, is a seaport city in the northeastern corner of Algeria, close to the border with Tunisia. Annaba is near the small Seybouse River ...
,
Biskra
Biskra ( ar, بسكرة ; ; Latin Vescera) is the capital city of Biskra Province, Algeria. In 2007, its population was recorded as 307,987. Biskra is located in northeastern Algeria, about 248 miles (400 km) from Algiers, 71 miles (115&nbs ...
,
Béjaïa
Béjaïa (; ; ar, بجاية, Latn, ar, Bijāya, ; kab, Bgayet, Vgayet), formerly Bougie and Bugia, is a Mediterranean port city and commune on the Gulf of Béjaïa in Algeria; it is the capital of Béjaïa Province, Kabylia. Béjaïa is ...
,
Tebessa,
Jijel
Jijel ( ar, جيجل), the classical Igilgili, is the capital of Jijel Province in north-eastern Algeria. It is flanked by the Mediterranean Sea in the region of Corniche Jijelienne and had a population of 131,513 in 2008.
Jijel is the administra ...
and
Bouïra
Bouïra is the capital of Bouïra Province, Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates ...
which had a total of 333 men. To compensate for this low number, the government relied on the
Makhzen tribes.
The ''zmala'' was the oldest and most redoubted cavalry of the Makhzen in the province, it formed a warrior tribe established in the plain of
Aïn M'lila
Aïn M'lila ( ar, عين مليلة, ''Ayn Malīlah''; which means "the white source", the root ''m-l-l'' being of Berber origin) is a town and Communes of Algeria, commune in Oum El Bouaghi Province, Algeria. According to the 2008 census it has ...
, whose chief bore the title of ''Qaid ez-zmala''. All the other tribesmen of war were called ''Daïra'' and had for military and administrative chief the ''Agha ed-Daïra'', installed in Constantine, however the
Sheikhs
Sheikh (pronounced or ; ar, شيخ ' , mostly pronounced , plural ' )—also transliterated sheekh, sheyikh, shaykh, shayk, shekh, shaik and Shaikh, shak—is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates a chief of a ...
were the true administrators of the tribes. In addition to these tribes, each great ''Sheikh'' or ''Qaid'' had a certain number of horsemen with him. In addition to that, the
Kabyle tribes could put 15 to 20,000 infantry under arms if needed.
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
* {{cite book
, last= Julien
, first= Charles-André
, author-link= Charles-André Julien
, title= History of North Africa, from its origins to 1830 – ''Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord, des origines à 1830''
, date= 1994
, page= 677-677
, isbn= 978-2-228-88789-2
Former countries in Africa
Ottoman Algeria
States and territories disestablished in 1837