In chemistry, ice rules are basic principles that govern arrangement of

atom Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons. Only the most common variety of hydrogen has no neutrons. Every solid, liquid, gas, and ...

s in water

ice Ice is water frozen into a solid state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 0 degrees Celsius or Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaq ...

. They are also known as Bernal–Fowler rules, after British physicists

John Desmond Bernal John Desmond Bernal (; 10 May 1901 – 15 September 1971) was an Irish scientist who pioneered the use of X-ray crystallography in molecular biology. He published extensively on the history of science. In addition, Bernal wrote popular book ...

and Ralph H. Fowler who first described them in 1933. The rules state each

oxygen Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as wel ...

covalently bonded A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electrons to form electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms ...

to two

hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, an ...

atoms, and that the oxygen atom in each water molecule forms two hydrogen bonds with other water molecules, so that there is precisely one hydrogen between each pair of oxygen atoms. In other words, in ordinary I_h ice, every oxygen is bonded to the total of four hydrogens, two of these bonds are strong and two of them are much weaker. Every hydrogen is bonded to two oxygens, strongly to one and weakly to the other. The resulting configuration is geometrically a periodic lattice. The distribution of bonds on this lattice is represented by a directed-graph (arrows) and can be either ordered or disordered. In 1935,

Linus Pauling Linus Carl Pauling (; February 28, 1901August 19, 1994) was an American chemist, biochemist, chemical engineer, peace activist, author, and educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific top ...

used the ice rules to calculate the

residual entropy Residual entropy is the difference in entropy between a non-equilibrium state and crystal state of a substance close to absolute zero. This term is used in condensed matter physics to describe the entropy at zero kelvin of a glass or plastic cry ...

(zero temperature entropy) of ice I_h. For this (and other) reasons the rules are sometimes mis-attributed and referred to as "Pauling's ice rules" (not to be confused with

Pauling's rules Pauling's rules are five rules published by Linus Pauling in 1929 for predicting and rationalizing the crystal structures of ionic compounds. First rule: the radius ratio rule For typical ionic solids, the cations are smaller than the ani ...

for ionic crystals). A nice figure of the resulting structure can be found in Hamann.

References

External links

* Bernal–Fowler rules in Glossary of Meteorology

* Exposition by Chris Wilson and Brett Marmo

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Ice Rules Water ice

See also

References

External links