''Plasmodium juxtanucleare'' is a species of parasite in the family

Plasmodiidae The Plasmodiidae are a family (biology), family of apicomplexan parasites, including the type genus ''Plasmodium'', which is responsible for malaria. This family was erected in 1903 by Mesnil and is one of the four families in the Order (biology) ...

. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are

bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweigh ...

Description

This species was first described in 1941 by Versiani and Gomes.Versiani, V. & Gomes, B. F. 1941 Sobre um novo hematozoario da galinha: ''Plasmodium juxtanucleare'' n.sp. (Nota previa). Revista Brasileira de Biologia 1, 231–233. The subgenus is named after Professor Gordon F. Bennett. Parasite densities tend to be low (0.1–1% infected erythrocytes). Multiple infections of the same erythrocyte may occur. The trophozoites have scanty cytoplasm and are irregular in shape. When fully grown they may be round, oval or irregular. They adhere closely to the nucleus and have 1-2 pigment granules. While a vacuole may be present there is no ring form unlike that of other species. The trophozoites produce two to six

merozoite Apicomplexans, a group of intracellular parasites, have life cycle stages that allow them to survive the wide variety of environments they are exposed to during their complex life cycle. Each stage in the life cycle of an apicomplexan organism is ...

s per erythrocyte. The merozoites have scanty cytoplasm and do not exceed the size of the nucleus when fully developed. The schizonts are small and always found juxtaposed to the erythrocyte nucleus. The

gametocyte A gametocyte is a eukaryotic germ cell that divides by mitosis into other gametocytes or by meiosis into gametids during gametogenesis. Male gametocytes are called ''spermatocytes'', and female gametocytes are called ''oocytes''. Development ...

s resemble those of ''

Plasmodium relictum ''Plasmodium relictum'' is a species in the genus ''Plasmodium,'' subgenus '' Haemamoeba''. It is a parasite, and the most common cause of malaria in birds. Like all ''Plasmodium'' species, ''P. relictum'' has both vertebrate and insect host ...

'' and may displace the nucleus. They are of variable shape:oval, round, elongated or even irregular. They do not exceed the size of the nucleus. Perhaps the most characteristic feature of this genus is the formation of pedunculated oocyts in the mosquito midgut.

Distribution

This species is found in a number of countries including Brasil, India, Indonesia, Japan, Philippines, Malaysia, Mexico, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Tanzania and Uruguay. It is thought that this species probably originated in South East Asia but this requires confirmation.

Clinical features and host pathology

The disease caused by this parasite is similar to that caused by ''

Leucocytozoon caulleryi ''Leucocytozoon caulleryi'' is a species of the genus ''Leucocytozoon'', a genus of parasitic alveolates. This species has both insect (''Culicoides'' species) and vertebrate (birds) hosts. Description History This species was originally desc ...

''. ''P. juxtanucleare'' is one of the causes of

chicken The chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated junglefowl species, with attributes of wild species such as the grey and the Ceylon junglefowl that are originally from Southeastern Asia. Rooster or cock is a term for an adult m ...

malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. S ...

. Clinical findings associated with high parasitemia are

anemia Anemia or anaemia (British English) is a blood disorder in which the blood has a reduced ability to carry oxygen due to a lower than normal number of red blood cells, or a reduction in the amount of hemoglobin. When anemia comes on slowly, th ...

diarrhea Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin wi ...

and weight loss that may lead to death. Body temperature is not elevated. Increases in the thrombocyte number and total

leukocyte White blood cells, also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from mult ...

and basophil count have been reported.Silveira P., Damatta R.A., Dagosto M. (2009) Hematological changes of chickens experimentally infected with ''Plasmodium (Bennettinia) juxtanucleare''. Vet. Parasitol. The course of the parasitemia showed low levels initially and reaching a peak after 15 days; trophozoites were the most commonly observed form, followed by schizonts (first detected on day 12) and

s (first seen on day 27). The typical distribution after the gametocytes have appeared is trophozoites (80%) schizonts (17%) and gametocytes (3%). ''P. juxtanucleare'' also infects

black-footed penguin The African penguin (''Spheniscus demersus''), also known as Cape penguin or South African penguin, is a species of penguin confined to southern African waters. Like all extant penguins, it is flightless, with a streamlined body and wings stiffe ...

s. Five fatal cases were reported in a Sounth African zoo. Laboratory findings included parasitemia, splenomegaly, pulmonary oedema and schizonts in the reticuloendothelial system.Grim K.C., Van der Merwe E., Sullivan M., Parsons N., McCutchan T.F. and Cranfield M. (2003) Plasmodium juxtanucleare associated with mortality in black-footed penguins (''Spheniscus demersus'') admitted to a rehabilitation center. J. Zoo Wildlife Med. 34 (3) This species infects the

Chinese bamboo partridge The Chinese bamboo partridge (''Bambusicola thoracicus'') is a small Galliform bird. It is one of three species in the genus ''Bambusicola'', along with the mountain bamboo partridge of the Himalayas, and the Taiwan bamboo partridge of Taiwan. Ch ...

white eared-pheasant The white eared pheasant (''Crossoptilon crossoptilon''), also known as Dolan’s eared pheasant or Bee's pheasant, is a species of " eared pheasant" that get its name because its colouration is white and has the prominent ear tufts of the genu ...

, Malayan jungle fowl ('' Gallus gallus spadiceus''),

Sri Lankan junglefowl The Sri Lankan junglefowl (''Gallus lafayettii'' sometimes spelled ''Gallus lafayetii''), also known as the Ceylon junglefowl or Lafayette's junglefowl, is a member of the Galliformes bird order which is endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is the nati ...

grey-winged francolin The grey-winged francolin (''Scleroptila afra'') is a species of bird in the family Phasianidae. It is found in Lesotho and South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. ...

crested francolin The crested francolin (''Ortygornis sephaena'') is a species of bird in the family Phasianidae. It is found in southern Africa. One of its subspecies, ''Ortygornis sephaena rovuma'', is sometimes considered a separate species, Kirk's francolin. ...

wild turkey The wild turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo'') is an Upland game bird, upland ground bird native to North America, one of two extant species of Turkey (bird), turkey and the heaviest member of the order Galliformes. It is the ancestor to the domestic ...

and the Indian peafowl.

Known vectors

'' Culex annulus''
''

Culex gelidus ''Culex (Culex) gelidus'' is a species of mosquito belonging to the genus ''Culex''. It is found in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea (Island); Papua ...

''
'' Culex molestus Forskal''
'' Culex pipiens fatigens''
'' Culex pipiens pallus''
''

Culex pseudovishnui ''Culex (Culex) pseudovishnui'' is a species complex of mosquito belonging to the ''Culex vishnui'' group of the genus ''Culex''. It is found in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Japan, South Korea, Laos, Macau ...

''
'' Culex saltanensis Dyar 1928''
'' Culex (Culex) sitiens Wiedmann''
'' Culex tritaeniorhynchus'' '' Mansonia crassipes''

Bennettinia

''Bennettinia'' is a subgenus of ''Plasmodium'' created in 1997 by Valkiunas. CABDbr>19980804939
in honour of the parasitologist Gordon F. Bennett. . . ''Plasmodium juxtanucleare'' is the sole species in this subgenus. The characteristic features are: * Schizonts contain scant cytoplasm, are often round, do not exceed the size of the host

nucleus Nucleus ( : nuclei) is a Latin word for the seed inside a fruit. It most often refers to: *Atomic nucleus, the very dense central region of an atom *Cell nucleus, a central organelle of a eukaryotic cell, containing most of the cell's DNA Nucle ...

and stick to it. *

Gametocyte A gametocyte is a eukaryotic germ cell that divides by mitosis into other gametocytes or by meiosis into gametids during gametogenesis. Male gametocytes are called ''spermatocytes'', and female gametocytes are called ''oocytes''. Development ...

s while varying in shape tend to be round or oval, do not exceed the size of the nucleus and stick to it.

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Plasmodium Juxtanucleare juxtanucleare Parasites of birds