The Battle of the Kalka River (russian: Битва на реке Калке; uk, Битва на річці Калка) was fought between the
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, ...
, whose armies were led by
Jebe
Jebe (or Jebei, mn, Зэв, ''Zev''; birth name: Jirqo'adai (Modern Mongolian: Zurgadai), mn, Зургаадай, ) (death: approximately 1224) was one of the most prominent Noyans (generals) of Genghis Khan. He belonged to the Besud clan, ...
and
Subutai
Subutai (Classical Mongolian: ''Sübügätäi'' or ''Sübü'ätäi''; Modern Mongolian: Сүбээдэй, ''Sübeedei''. ; ; c. 1175–1248) was a Mongol general and the primary military strategist of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He directe ...
, and a coalition of several Rus' principalities, including
Kiev
Kyiv, also spelled Kiev, is the capital and most populous city of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine along the Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2021, its population was 2,962,180, making Kyiv the seventh-most populous city in Europe.
Ky ...
and
Halych
Halych ( uk, Га́лич ; ro, Halici; pl, Halicz; russian: Га́лич, Galich; german: Halytsch, ''Halitsch'' or ''Galitsch''; yi, העליטש) is a historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine. The city gave its name to the P ...
, and the
Cumans
The Cumans (or Kumans), also known as Polovtsians or Polovtsy (plural only, from the Russian exonym ), were a Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confederation. After the Mongol invasion (1237), many so ...
under
Köten. They were under the joint command of
Mstislav the Bold
Mstislav Mstislavich the Daring (russian: Мстисла́в II Мстисла́вич Удатный, uk, Мстислав Мстиславич Удатний, translit=Mstyslav Mstyslavych Udatnyi; died c. 1228) prince of Tmutarakan and Chern ...
and
Mstislav III of Kiev. The battle was fought on May 31, 1223 on the banks of the
Kalka River
Kalka is a town in the Panchkula district of Haryana, India. It is near Panchkula city. The name of the town is derived from the Hindu goddess Kali. It is situated in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a gateway to the neighbouring state o ...
in present-day
Donetsk Oblast
The Donetsk Oblast ( ukr, Донецька область, Donetska oblast, ), also referred to as Donechchyna ( ukr, Донеччина, links=no), is an oblast of eastern Ukraine. It is Ukraine's most populous province, with around 4.1 mill ...
, Ukraine, and ended in a decisive Mongol victory.
Following the
Mongol invasion of Central Asia and the subsequent collapse of the
Khwarezmian Empire, a Mongol force under the command of generals Jebe and Subutai advanced into
Iraq-i Ajam
Persian Iraq, also uncommonly spelled Persian Irak ( fa, عراقِ عجم ''Erāq-e Ajam(i)''; ar, عراق العجم Irāq al-'Ajam'' or Irāq 'Ajami''), is a historical region of the western parts of Iran.
The region, originally know ...
. Jebe requested permission from the Mongolian emperor,
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; ; xng, Temüjin, script=Latn; ., name=Temujin – August 25, 1227) was the founder and first Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in history a ...
, to continue his conquests for a few years before returning to the main army via the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historica ...
. While waiting for Genghis Khan's reply, the duo set out on a raid in which they
attacked the
Kingdom of Georgia
The Kingdom of Georgia ( ka, საქართველოს სამეფო, tr), also known as the Georgian Empire, was a medieval Eurasian monarchy that was founded in circa 1008 AD. It reached its Golden Age of political and economic ...
. Genghis Khan granted the duo permission to undertake their expedition, and after making their way through the Caucasus, they defeated a coalition of
Caucasian tribes before defeating the Cumans. The Cuman
Khan
Khan may refer to:
*Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan
*Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name
*Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
fled to the court of his son-in-law, Prince Mstislav the Bold of
Halych
Halych ( uk, Га́лич ; ro, Halici; pl, Halicz; russian: Га́лич, Galich; german: Halytsch, ''Halitsch'' or ''Galitsch''; yi, העליטש) is a historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine. The city gave its name to the P ...
, whom he convinced to help fight the Mongols. Mstislav the Bold formed an alliance of the Rus' princes including Mstislav III of Kiev.
The combined Rus' army defeated the Mongol
rearguard
A rearguard is a part of a military force that protects it from attack from the rear, either during an advance or withdrawal. The term can also be used to describe forces protecting lines, such as communication lines, behind an army. Even more ...
at first. The Rus' pursued the Mongols, who were in a feigned retreat, for several days, which spread out their armies. The Mongols stopped and assumed battle formation on the banks of the Kalka River. Mstislav the Bold and his Cuman allies attacked the Mongols without waiting for the rest of the Rus' army and were defeated. In the ensuing confusion, several other Rus' princes were defeated, and Mstislav of Kiev was forced to retreat to a fortified camp. After holding for three days, he surrendered in return for a promise of safe conduct for himself and his men. Once they surrendered, however, the Mongols slaughtered them and executed Mstislav of Kiev. Mstislav the Bold escaped, and the Mongols went back to Asia, where they joined Genghis Khan.
Background
In 1219, in retaliation for the murders of his
ambassadors,
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 87.] the
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...
Khan
Khan may refer to:
*Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan
*Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name
*Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
,
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; ; xng, Temüjin, script=Latn; ., name=Temujin – August 25, 1227) was the founder and first Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in history a ...
,
invaded the Khwarezmian Empire.
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 98.] In a campaign that lasted three years, Genghis Khan and his
general
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry.
In some usages the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colonel."general, adj. and n.". O ...
s destroyed the
Khwarezmian armies and caused the empire to disintegrate. The Khwarezmian
Sultan
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it c ...
Ala ad-Din Muhammad succumbed to disease on an island in the
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water, often described as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. An endorheic basin, it lies between Europe and Asia; east of the Caucasus, west of the broad steppe of Central A ...
, leaving his son,
Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu landless.
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 106.]
When
Jebe
Jebe (or Jebei, mn, Зэв, ''Zev''; birth name: Jirqo'adai (Modern Mongolian: Zurgadai), mn, Зургаадай, ) (death: approximately 1224) was one of the most prominent Noyans (generals) of Genghis Khan. He belonged to the Besud clan, ...
(one of the Mongol generals pursuing Muhammad) heard of Ala ad-Din Muhammad's death, he asked Genghis Khan for a year or two to continue his conquests before returning to
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million ...
via the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historica ...
.
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 107.]
While awaiting Genghis' reply, Jebe and
Subutai
Subutai (Classical Mongolian: ''Sübügätäi'' or ''Sübü'ätäi''; Modern Mongolian: Сүбээдэй, ''Sübeedei''. ; ; c. 1175–1248) was a Mongol general and the primary military strategist of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He directe ...
(another general pursuing Muhammad) led their army of 20,000 men, with each general commanding a
tumen.
They left behind a trail of destruction as they moved through Persian Iraq (
Iraq-i Ajam
Persian Iraq, also uncommonly spelled Persian Irak ( fa, عراقِ عجم ''Erāq-e Ajam(i)''; ar, عراق العجم Irāq al-'Ajam'' or Irāq 'Ajami''), is a historical region of the western parts of Iran.
The region, originally know ...
) and
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (, ; az, Azərbaycan ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, , also sometimes officially called the Azerbaijan Republic is a transcontinental country located at the boundary of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is a part of th ...
, sacking the cities of
Rey Rey may refer to:
*Rey (given name), a given name
*Rey (surname), a surname
* Rey (''Star Wars''), a character in the ''Star Wars'' films
*Rey, Iran, a city in Iran
* Ray County, in Tehran Province of Iran
* ''Rey'' (film), a 2015 Indian film
*The ...
,
Zanjan and
Qazvin
Qazvin (; fa, قزوین, , also Romanized as ''Qazvīn'', ''Qazwin'', ''Kazvin'', ''Kasvin'', ''Caspin'', ''Casbin'', ''Casbeen'', or ''Ghazvin'') is the largest city and capital of the Province of Qazvin in Iran. Qazvin was a capital of the ...
. The city of
Hamadan
Hamadan () or Hamedan ( fa, همدان, ''Hamedān'') (Old Persian: Haŋgmetana, Ecbatana) is the capital city of Hamadan Province of Iran. At the 2019 census, its population was 783,300 in 230,775 families. The majority of people living in Ham ...
surrendered without a struggle. Meanwhile,
Özbeg, the
Atabeg of Azerbaijan, saved his capital,
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quru River valley in Iran's historic Azerbaijan region between long ridges of vo ...
, and prevented his country's destruction by offering to the Mongols a large amount of money, clothing and
horse
The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million yea ...
s, which were the Mongols' best weapons.
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 116.]
From Tabriz, the Mongols advanced north and made their winter base in the
Mugan Steppes. There, the army was strengthened by the arrival of
Kurdish and
Turcoman freebooters, who offered their services to the Mongols.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 89.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 116
Caucasus raid
![Mongol invasion of Georgia-en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Mongol_invasion_of_Georgia-en.png)
At the same time, Jebe's and Subutai's attention had turned elsewhere. In January and February 1221, they made a
reconnaissance
In military operations, reconnaissance or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, terrain, and other activities.
Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops (skirmisher ...
into the
Kingdom of Georgia
The Kingdom of Georgia ( ka, საქართველოს სამეფო, tr), also known as the Georgian Empire, was a medieval Eurasian monarchy that was founded in circa 1008 AD. It reached its Golden Age of political and economic ...
, entering through the
Kura River. The goal of the Mongols was not to conquer the country but to plunder it, and the Kurds and Turcoman freebooters were sent off in the
vanguard
The vanguard (also called the advance guard) is the leading part of an advancing military formation. It has a number of functions, including seeking out the enemy and securing ground in advance of the main force.
History
The vanguard derives fr ...
. However, the
King of Georgia
This is a list of kings and queens regnant of the kingdoms of Georgia before Russian annexation in 1801–1810.
For more comprehensive lists, and family trees, of Georgian monarchs and rulers see Lists of Georgian monarchs.
Kings of Iberia ...
,
George IV Lasha, advanced with 10,000 men and drove the Mongols back near
Tbilisi
Tbilisi ( ; ka, თბილისი ), in some languages still known by its pre-1936 name Tiflis ( ), is the Capital city, capital and the List of cities and towns in Georgia (country), largest city of Georgia (country), Georgia, lying on the ...
. The Mongols withdrew, but continued to launch
counter-attacks on the Georgian army.
In March 1221, the Mongols returned to Azerbaijan and besieged
Maragheh
Maragheh ( fa, مراغه, Marāgheh or ''Marāgha''; az, ماراغا ) is a city and capital of Maragheh County, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. Maragheh is on the bank of the river Sufi Chay. The population consists mostly of Iranian Azerba ...
, using prisoners as the vanguard to take the brunt of each assault on the city. By the end of the month, they had captured the city and put most of the population to death. Jebe and Subutai planned to advance south and capture
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...
, the capital of the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
, and hold it for
ransom
Ransom is the practice of holding a prisoner or item to extort money or property to secure their release, or the sum of money involved in such a practice.
When ransom means "payment", the word comes via Old French ''rançon'' from Latin ''red ...
while the
Caliph
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
was in Iraq-i Ajam with a small army. Instead, the Mongols turned once again to Hamadan. This time, however, the city's leaders failed to surrender, and its defenders inflicted many casualties upon the Mongol forces before their capture and plunder of the city.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 92.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 117
In late 1221, the Mongols advanced north into Georgia once again, entering through the Kura River. A 30,000 men strong Georgian—Armenian army was assembled near Tbilisi.
["Genghis Khan: the man who conquered the world, chapter 12 the great raid"by Frank Lynn] The Mongols were also reinforced, numbering 30,000 and received further support from local Turkmen tribes. Jebe set up an ambush with 5,000 men while the main Mongol army feigned retreat. The Georgian cavalry pursued Subutai's army after defeating the Turkmen and were destroyed when Jebe closed the trap. The Georgian army suffered a heavy defeat at
Khunan, and King George was mortally wounded. The Mongols proceeded to plunder southern Georgia.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', pp. 93–94.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', pp. 117–18
Prelude
![East-Hem 1200ad](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/East-Hem_1200ad.jpg)
Genghis Khan eventually granted Jebe permission and with Subutai as his second-in-command,
the Mongols advanced to the city of
Derbent
Derbent (russian: Дербе́нт; lez, Кьвевар, Цал; az, Дәрбәнд, italic=no, Dərbənd; av, Дербенд; fa, دربند), formerly romanized as Derbend, is a city in Dagestan, Russia, located on the Caspian Sea. It is ...
, which refused to surrender. Jebe promised to spare the city in return for the services of 10 guides to take them through the Caucasus. To warn the guides against playing any tricks, the Mongols executed one of them. The crossing of the Caucasus was costly for the Mongols, who had to abandon their
siege engines
A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent heavy castle doors, thick city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. Some are immobile, constructed in place to attack enemy fortifications from a distance, while other ...
and lost hundreds of men to the cold.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 95.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 118
After making it through the Caucasus, the Mongols were met by an alliance consisting of the
Lezgians
Lezgins or Leks ( lez, Лезгияр, Лекьер. lezgijar) are a Northeast Caucasian ethnic group native predominantly to southern Dagestan, a republic of Russia, and northeastern Azerbaijan. The Lezgin are predominantly Sunni Muslims and s ...
, the
Alans
The Alans (Latin: ''Alani'') were an ancient and medieval Iranian nomadic pastoral people of the North Caucasus – generally regarded as part of the Sarmatians, and possibly related to the Massagetae. Modern historians have connected the Al ...
and the
Cherkesses, tribes who were living north of the Caucasus who had mustered an army of around 50,000 men.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 95.] They were joined by the
Cumans
The Cumans (or Kumans), also known as Polovtsians or Polovtsy (plural only, from the Russian exonym ), were a Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confederation. After the Mongol invasion (1237), many so ...
, a
Turkic people who owned an expansive
khanate
A khaganate or khanate was a polity ruled by a khan, khagan, khatun, or khanum. That political territory was typically found on the Eurasian Steppe and could be equivalent in status to tribal chiefdom, principality, kingdom or empire.
Mong ...
stretching from
Lake Balkhash
Lake Balkhash ( kk, Балқаш көлі, ''Balqaş kóli'', ; russian: озеро Балхаш, ozero Balkhash) is a lake in southeastern Kazakhstan, one of the largest lakes in Asia and the 15th largest in the world. It is located in the ea ...
to the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...
. The Cumans also convinced the
Volga Bulgars
Volga Bulgaria or Volga–Kama Bulgaria, was a historic Bulgar state that existed between the 7th and 13th centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama River, in what is now European Russia. Volga Bulgaria was a multi-ethnic state wi ...
and
Khazar
The Khazars ; he, כּוּזָרִים, Kūzārīm; la, Gazari, or ; zh, 突厥曷薩 ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire coverin ...
s to join. The Cuman
Khan
Khan may refer to:
*Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan
*Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name
*Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
,
Koten, placed his army under the command of his brother, Yuri, and his son, Daniel. The first battle between the league and the Mongols was indecisive, but the Mongols managed to persuade the Cuman to abandon the alliance by reminding them of the Turkic-Mongol friendship and promising them a share of the booty gained from the Caucasian tribes.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 96.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 119
* Jackson, ''The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410'', p. 48
With this arrangement settled, the Mongols attacked the alliance's army and routed it. The Mongols then proceeded to attack the Cumans, who had split into two separate groups as they were returning home, destroying both armies and executing all the prisoners before sacking
Astrakhan
Astrakhan ( rus, Астрахань, p=ˈastrəxənʲ) is the largest city and administrative centre of Astrakhan Oblast in Southern Russia. The city lies on two banks of the Volga, in the upper part of the Volga Delta, on eleven islands of the ...
.
[Wallace, ''Rise of Russia'', p. 38.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', 119–20
* Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 97 The Mongols began pursuing the Cumans as they fled in a north-westerly direction.
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 120.]
The
Venetians sent a delegation to the Mongols, and they concluded an alliance in which it was agreed that the Mongols would destroy any other
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
an trading post they came across.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 97.] As the Mongols pursued the Cumans, Jebe sent a detachment to
Crimea
Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...
, where the
Republic of Genoa
The Republic of Genoa ( lij, Repúbrica de Zêna ; it, Repubblica di Genova; la, Res Publica Ianuensis) was a medieval and early modern maritime republic from the 11th century to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast. During the Lat ...
had trading stations. The Mongols captured and plundered the Genoese city of
Soldaia. Meanwhile, Koten fled to the court of his son-in-law,
Prince
A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. Th ...
Mstislav the Bold
Mstislav Mstislavich the Daring (russian: Мстисла́в II Мстисла́вич Удатный, uk, Мстислав Мстиславич Удатний, translit=Mstyslav Mstyslavych Udatnyi; died c. 1228) prince of Tmutarakan and Chern ...
of
Halych
Halych ( uk, Га́лич ; ro, Halici; pl, Halicz; russian: Га́лич, Galich; german: Halytsch, ''Halitsch'' or ''Galitsch''; yi, העליטש) is a historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine. The city gave its name to the P ...
.
He warned Mstislav: "Today the Mongols have taken our land and tomorrow they will take yours".
[Wallace, ''Rise of Russia'', p. 38.] However, the Cumans were ignored for almost a year as the Rus had suffered from Cuman raids for decades. But when news reached
Kiev
Kyiv, also spelled Kiev, is the capital and most populous city of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine along the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2021, its population was 2,962,180, making Kyiv the List of European cities by populat ...
that the Mongols were marching along the
Dniester River, the Rus responded.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 98.] Mstislav gathered an alliance of the
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rusʹ, also known as Kyivan Rusʹ ( orv, , Rusĭ, or , , ; Old Norse: ''Garðaríki''), was a state in Eastern and Northern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical Atlas of ...
princes
A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. The ...
including
Mstislav III of Kiev and Prince
Yuri II
Yuri II (russian: Ю́рий–II), also known as George II of Vladimir or Georgy II Vsevolodovich (26 November 11884 March 1238), was the fourth Grand Prince of Vladimir (1212–1216, 1218–1238) who presided over Vladimir-Suzdal ...
of
Vladimir-Suzdal
Vladimir-Suzdal (russian: Владимирско-Су́здальская, ''Vladimirsko-Suzdal'skaya''), also Vladimir-Suzdalian Rus', formally known as the Grand Duchy of Vladimir (1157–1331) (russian: Владимиро-Су́здальс ...
, who promised support. The Rus princes then began mustering their armies and going towards the rendezvous point.
Battle
Initial moves
The number of men present at the battle is disputed. A major factor in this is the fact that no primary sources give the number of men present at the battle, which leaves modern historians to estimate the number of men. Historian
Leo de Hartog gives the size of the Rus' army as 30,000, while Richard Gabriel and
Hector Hugh Munro claim that the size of the Rus' army was 80,000.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 98.]
* Munro, ''The Rise of the Russian Empire'', p. 81. De Hartog also estimates the size of the Mongol army as 20,000, while Gabriel estimates that it was around 23,000 men.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 100.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 118. However, historian John Fennell, an expert on Kievan Rus and early Russian history, and one well-versed in the primary sources, calls many of these figures into doubt, saying the numbers given in the Russian sources (there are no Mongol or Polovtsian sources, at least none that have survived, and other sources from other cultures, if they exist, are rather dubious) are formulaic or exaggerated and the chronicles contradict themselves.
[John Fennell, ''The Crisis of Medieval Russia 1200–1304'', pp. 66–68.] The information given in the Novgorod First Chronicle and the Primary Chronicle would imply a total of 11,000 soldiers for the Rus' forces, but Fennel considers even these numbers to be exaggerations.
While Russian historians in the Soviet era have traditionally given estimates of around 80,000-100,000, modern Russian historians have taken a revisionist stance with a consensus settling on drastically lower numbers, with the Mongols having a numerical advantage.
[D.G. Khrustalev. Rus and the Mongol invasion (20 - 50's of XIII century). - SPb: Eurasia, 2013. - pp. 85–86] Russian historian D.G. Khrustalev estimated in 2013 that the Rus' army consisted of 10,000 soldiers (including mercenaries), while the Cumans brought 5,000 cavalry, for a total of 15,000.
[Khrustalev, p. 416] Carl Sverdrup estimates the army at 8,000, and says 30,000 and 80,000 are enormous exaggerations.
[Sverdrup, p. 206] The Mongols evidently believed it was a considerable force, given the extreme lengths the Mongols went to dislocate its formations.
The move by the Rus' army was detected by the Mongols, who were on the east side of the Dnieper River waiting for reinforcements from
Jochi
Jochi Khan ( Mongolian: mn, Зүчи, ; kk, Жошы, Joşy جوشى; ; crh, Cuçi, Джучи, جوچى; also spelled Juchi; Djochi, and Jöchi c. 1182– February 1227) was a Mongol army commander who was the eldest son of Temüjin (aka G ...
, Genghis Khan's eldest son, who was campaigning around the
Aral Sea
The Aral Sea ( ; kk, Арал теңізі, Aral teñızı; uz, Орол денгизи, Orol dengizi; kaa, Арал теңизи, Aral teńizi; russian: Аральское море, Aral'skoye more) was an endorheic basin, endorheic lake lyi ...
. Jochi, however, had become ill, which meant no reinforcements would be coming.
At the same time, the Rus' attempted to trap the Mongols. The princes of Halych and Volhynia transported their armies south down the river, while the princes of Kiev and Chernigov advanced north up the river, and the army of Kursk advanced from the front. At the same time, the Cumans attempted to attack the Mongol army's rear.
When Jebe learned of this, he sent 10 envoys to the Prince of Kiev. The envoys stated that the Mongols had no feud with the Rus and were only attacking the Cumans; they added that the Mongols were marching east, away from the Rus' cities. Mstislav of Kiev had the envoys executed, and the Mongols responded by sending another set of ambassadors, who declared war.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 99.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 120
* Munro, ''The Rise of the Russian Empire'', p. 81.
When Jebe and Subutai heard of the Rus' movements, they began moving east, away from the Rus, which was the only direction in which they could move. However, they left a
rearguard
A rearguard is a part of a military force that protects it from attack from the rear, either during an advance or withdrawal. The term can also be used to describe forces protecting lines, such as communication lines, behind an army. Even more ...
of 1,000 under the command of an officer, Hamabek, to report of the Rus movements and act as bait. Soon, Mstislav the Bold reached the river opposite the rearguard, and it became apparent that no prince had been appointed commander-in-chief. Thus, all the princes could act as they pleased. Eventually, Mstislav crossed the river under heavy
arrow
An arrow is a fin-stabilized projectile launched by a bow. A typical arrow usually consists of a long, stiff, straight shaft with a weighty (and usually sharp and pointed) arrowhead attached to the front end, multiple fin-like stabilizers c ...
fire. When the Rus landed, however, their numbers were too great, and the Mongols were killed to the last man.
Rus' attack
![Dnieper Nasa 2004-05-06](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Dnieper_Nasa_2004-05-06.jpg)
After drawing out the Rus armies for nine days in a feigned retreat, the Mongol army turned to face their pursuers along the
Kalka River
Kalka is a town in the Panchkula district of Haryana, India. It is near Panchkula city. The name of the town is derived from the Hindu goddess Kali. It is situated in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a gateway to the neighbouring state o ...
(the river's location is currently unknown, but it is thought to be the
Kalchik River which flows into the
Sea of Azov
The Sea of Azov ( Crimean Tatar: ''Azaq deñizi''; russian: Азовское море, Azovskoye more; uk, Азовське море, Azovs'ke more) is a sea in Eastern Europe connected to the Black Sea by the narrow (about ) Strait of Kerch, ...
).
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 121.]
* Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'' p. 99.
The Russian primary sources give only a very general account of the battle itself and the pursuit of the princes back across the steppe. The chronicles name which princes took part and which died, but not much more in terms of the size of armies or casualties. As to the actual battle itself, the chronicles report that the Polovtsy (Cumans) broke and ran without having fought and that their flight through the Rus’ ranks led to mass confusion and resulted in their slaughter by the Mongols.
Rus' defeat
The Mongols attacked the coalition army when most of it had crossed the Kalka River. The Mongols appear to have caught the coalition forces by surprise in a fast transition from horse archer fire to massed cavalry charges, because the coalition rout began incredibly quickly: the Rus forces bringing up the rear had not yet arrived on the battlefield by the time the front ranks were dissolving. The armies of Volhynia and Kursk made a gap in their line so that the fleeing Cumans could retreat. However, the Mongol heavy cavalry charged through the newly formed gap and also enveloped them. The army of Chernigov, which was not aware that the battle had started, was advancing when they collided head-on with the retreating Cumans. Using smoke bombs to disrupt the coalition's ability to coordinate, the Mongol cavalry took advantage of the confusion in the Chernigov line and attacked, causing the line to collapse. This, in turn, led to the death of
Prince Mstislav of Chernigov.
[Martin, ''Medieval Russia: 980–1584'', p. 132.]
* Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 100
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 122.
At the same time, the Mongol wings closed around the shattered Rus' army, cutting off its retreat. The surrounded Rus' were hit by volley after volley, accompanied by cavalry charges at any weakness in the formation. As the Mongols were carrying this annihilation out, some of the army – led by Mstislav the Bold – managed to cut their way through the Mongol ring and escape.
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 122.]
* Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'' p. 100.
Mstislav of Kiev arrived to see what remained of the Rus' army fleeing. With his contingent of 10,000 men, he retreated to his
stockade
A stockade is an enclosure of palisades and tall walls, made of logs placed side by side vertically, with the tops sharpened as a defensive wall.
Etymology
''Stockade'' is derived from the French word ''estocade''. The French word was derived ...
d camp, on a hill by the Dnieper. The pursuing Mongol army caught up with Mstislav of Kiev's forces and started to besiege the camp.
Intervention of Brodnici
Mstislav of Kiev and the Kievan army managed to hold out for three days, but were eventually forced to surrender to Ploscânea. But Ploscânea deceived the Slavs and gave them to Tatars; Ploscânea initially was allied with Slavs and Cumans and was the leader of
Brodnici
The Brodnici (russian: Бродники, ukr, Бродники) were a tribe of disputed origin.
Etymology
In some opinions, the name, as used by foreign chronicles, means a person in charge of a ford (water crossing) in Slavic language (cf. Sla ...
, people from a territory of today Moldova and Romania. Once in control of the camp, the Mongols slaughtered the Kievan army including Mstislav of Kiev and several other noble prisoners.
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 122.]
Aftermath
![Genghis Khan empire-en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Genghis_Khan_empire-en.svg)
The battle was a very costly defeat for the Rus' princes, with Richard Gabriel claiming that they lost 50,000 men, while the Mongol losses were minimal. All the engaged coalition forces were caught with their backs to the river, and thus had no feasible line of retreat. Only Mstislav the Bold was able to save some of his army. Out of the Rus' primary sources, The
Primary Chronicle
The ''Tale of Bygone Years'' ( orv, Повѣсть времѧньныхъ лѣтъ, translit=Pověstĭ vremęnĭnyxŭ lětŭ; ; ; ; ), often known in English as the ''Rus' Primary Chronicle'', the ''Russian Primary Chronicle'', or simply the ...
gives a number of 10,000 killed while the much later (and much less reliable)
Nikonian Chronicle cites 60,000 killed. The ''Novgorodian First Chronicle'' (the most reliable), contemporary to the battle, gives no figures at all, but does say that only 1 in 10 soldiers made it back home, suggesting the number of killed was equivalent to almost the entire army.
Out of the Rus' princes, the wounded Daniel of Volhynia and Mstislav the Bold managed to escape the battle.
[Munro, ''The Rise of the Russian Empire'', p. 84.] This battle was a significant defeat, given that many of the Rus principalities lost much of their armies, with the notable exception of Vladimir-Suzdal.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', pp. 100–01.] Historian Robert Marshall describes the raid as follows: "The rest of Subutai's campaign has entered the annals of military history as one of the greatest adventures of cavalry warfare."
[Marshall, ''Storm from the East: from Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan'', p.57.]
The Mongols executed Mstislav of Kiev and the Kievan nobles with the traditional Mongol caveat reserved for royalty and nobility: without shedding blood. Mstislav and his nobles were buried and suffocated under the Mongol general's victory platform at the victory feast. Meanwhile, Mstislav the Bold managed to reach the western side of the Dnieper with what remained of his army. To stop the Mongols from crossing to the western side of the Dnieper, Mstislav destroyed all the boats he could find.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 101.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', 122
* Hector Hugh Munro, ''The Rise of the Russian Empire'', p. 84. After the battle, the people of Rus trembled in fear of this unknown scourge who had emerged from the frontier and destroyed the flower of their army. However, the Mongols were not there to conquer, and merely marched east after plundering.
What the Rus' feared would happen did not come to pass, as the Mongols pursued the Prince of Halych and plundered a few towns in the south before turning around. The Mongol army crossed the
Volga River
The Volga (; russian: Во́лга, a=Ru-Волга.ogg, p=ˈvoɫɡə) is the List of rivers of Europe#Rivers of Europe by length, longest river in Europe. Situated in Russia, it flows through Central Russia to Southern Russia and into the Cas ...
near modern-day
Volgograd
Volgograd ( rus, Волгогра́д, a=ru-Volgograd.ogg, p=vəɫɡɐˈɡrat), geographical renaming, formerly Tsaritsyn (russian: Цари́цын, Tsarítsyn, label=none; ) (1589–1925), and Stalingrad (russian: Сталингра́д, Stal ...
and passed through
Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria or Volga–Kama Bulgaria, was a historic Bulgar state that existed between the 7th and 13th centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama River, in what is now European Russia. Volga Bulgaria was a multi-ethnic state wi ...
. The Mongol army was routed by the Bulgars at the battle of Samara Bend
[https://study.com/academy/lesson/who-was-genghis-khan-facts-biography.html] and the remainder of the army continued marching east towards their rendezvous. The Mongols followed this up by attacking the Qanglis Cumans, who had supported their fellow Cumans in the Caucasus a year before. They fought against the Cuman army near the
Ural Mountains
The Ural Mountains ( ; rus, Ура́льские го́ры, r=Uralskiye gory, p=ʊˈralʲskʲɪjə ˈɡorɨ; ba, Урал тауҙары) or simply the Urals, are a mountain range that runs approximately from north to south through western ...
, defeating and killing the Khan before making them pay tribute.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', pp. 101–02.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 122
Following this victory, the Mongols turned east and met Genghis Khan and the rest of the Mongol army in the steppes to the east of the
Syr Darya River. Genghis Khan showed great appreciation for his generals' achievements and heaped praise on Jebe and Subutai. Jebe, however, did not survive the campaign long; he died soon afterwards.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 102.]
* de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', p. 123 The importance of the expedition was immense. The expedition was history's longest
cavalry raid, with the Mongols riding in three years. Subutai also stationed numerous spies in Rus', who provided frequent reports on what was happening in Europe and Rus'.
[Gabriel, ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General'', p. 102.]
In 1237 Subutai together with
Batu led another attack, and with 120,000 men conquered the
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rusʹ, also known as Kyivan Rusʹ ( orv, , Rusĭ, or , , ; Old Norse: ''Garðaríki''), was a state in Eastern and Northern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical Atlas of ...
.
[de Hartog, ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World'', pp. 165–66.]
References
Sources
Printed sources
* Boldur, Alexandru (1992). "Istoria Basarabiei" Editura Victor Frunză, București.
* Cross, Samuel Hazzard, and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, trans. (1953). ''Russian Primary Chronicle. Lavrentian Text'' Cambridge, MA: Medieval Academy of America.
* Fennell, John (1983). ''The Crisis of Medieval Russia 1200–1304''. London and New York: Longman.
* Gabriel, Richard (2004). ''Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General''. Praeger Publishers.
* de Hartog, Leo (1989). ''Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World''. I.B.Tauris.
* Jackson, Peter (2005). ''The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410''. Pearson Education Limited.
* Marshall, Robert (1993). ''Storm from the East: From Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan''. University of California Press.
* Martin, Janet (1995). ''Medieval Russia: 980–1584''. Cambridge University Press.
* Michell, Robert, and Neville Forbes, eds. and trans. (1914). The Chronicle of Novgorod (1914). London: Camden Society.
* Hugh Munro, Hector (1900). ''The Rise of the Russian Empire''. G. Richards.
* Wallace, Robert (1967). ''Rise of Russia''. Time-Life Books.
Online sources
* The Chronicle of Novgorod online: http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/MF1914.pdf
*
Further reading
* Golitsin, N.S., ''Russian military history'', St. Petersburg, 1877, Vol. 4, Part I, pp. 107–09. (russian: Голицын Н.С. Русская военная история. –СПб., 1877. –4.1. – С. 107–09.)
* ''Chronicle tales of Tatar-Mongol invasion/Military tales of Ancient Rus'', Moscow, 1985, pp. 70–95 (russian: Летописные повести о татаро-монгольском нашествии // Воинские повести Древней Руси. – М., 1985. С. 70–95.)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of The Kalka River
1223 in Europe
Kalka 1223
Conflicts in 1223
Kalka
Kalka is a town in the Panchkula district of Haryana, India. It is near Panchkula city. The name of the town is derived from the Hindu goddess Kali. It is situated in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a gateway to the neighbouring state ...
1223 in the Mongol Empire