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The Battle of Rethymno was part of the
Battle of Crete The Battle of Crete (german: Luftlandeschlacht um Kreta, el, Μάχη της Κρήτης), codenamed Operation Mercury (german: Unternehmen Merkur), was a major Axis airborne and amphibious operation during World War II to capture the island ...
, fought during
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
on the Greek island of
Crete Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and ...
between 20 and 29 May 1941. Australian and Greek forces commanded by
Lieutenant-colonel Lieutenant colonel ( , ) is a rank of commissioned officers in the armies, most marine forces and some air forces of the world, above a major and below a colonel. Several police forces in the United States use the rank of lieutenant colonel. ...
Ian Campbell defended the town of
Rethymno Rethymno ( el, Ρέθυμνο, , also ''Rethimno'', ''Rethymnon'', ''Réthymnon'', and ''Rhíthymnos'') is a city in Greece on the island of Crete. It is the capital of Rethymno regional unit, and has a population of more than 30,000 inhabitants ( ...
and the nearby airstrip against a German paratrooper attack by the 2nd Parachute Regiment of the
7th Air Division The 7th Air Division (7 AD) served the United States Air Force with distinction from early 1944 through early 1992, earning an outstanding unit decoration and a service streamer along the way. History Hawaii As the 7th Fighter Wing, the divis ...
commanded by
Colonel Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of ...
Alfred Sturm __NOTOC__ Alfred Sturm (23 August 1888 – 8 March 1962) was a German general during World War II. During the Battle of Crete, Sturm (then an ''Oberst'') was commander of the 2nd Parachute Rifle Regiment. On 20 May 1941, he jumped from an aircra ...
. The attack on Rethymno was one of four airborne assaults on Crete on 20 May, and part of the second series, following on from German attacks against
Maleme airfield Maleme Airport ( el, Αεροδρόμιο Μάλεμε) is an airport situated at Maleme, Crete. It has two runways (13/31 and 03/21) with no lights. The airport has closed for commercial aviation, but the Chania Aeroclub continues to use it. Th ...
and the main port of
Chania Chania ( el, Χανιά ; vec, La Canea), also spelled Hania, is a city in Greece and the capital of the Chania regional unit. It lies along the north west coast of the island Crete, about west of Rethymno and west of Heraklion. The muni ...
in the west of Crete in the morning. The aircraft which had dropped the morning attackers were scheduled to drop the 2nd Regiment over Rethymno later the same day; confusion and delays at the airfields in mainland Greece meant the assault was launched without direct air support and spread over an extended period rather than simultaneously. Those German units dropping near the
Allied An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
positions suffered very high casualties, both from ground fire and upon landing. The German overall commander,
Lieutenant-general Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the ...
Kurt Student Kurt Arthur Benno Student (12 May 1890 – 1 July 1978) was a German general in the Luftwaffe during World War II. An early pioneer of airborne forces, Student was in overall command of developing a paratrooper force to be known as the ''Fallschi ...
, concentrated all resources on the battle for Maleme airfield, to the west, which the Germans won. The Allied Commander-in-Chief
Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...
,
General A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of highest military ranks, high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry. In some usages the term "general officer" refers t ...
Archibald Wavell Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, (5 May 1883 – 24 May 1950) was a senior officer of the British Army. He served in the Second Boer War, the Bazar Valley Campaign and the First World War, during which he was wounded ...
, ordered an evacuation of Crete on 27 May, but the Allied commander on Crete,
Major-general Major general (abbreviated MG, maj. gen. and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. The disappearance of the "sergeant" in the title explains the apparent confusion of a ...
Bernard Freyberg Lieutenant-General Bernard Cyril Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg, (21 March 1889 – 4 July 1963) was a British-born New Zealand soldier and Victoria Cross recipient, who served as the 7th Governor-General of New Zealand from 1946 to 1952. Freyb ...
, was unable to communicate this to Campbell. Faced by a superior force of Germans equipped with
tank A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle intended as a primary offensive weapon in front-line ground combat. Tank designs are a balance of heavy firepower, strong armour, and good battlefield mobility provided by tracks and a powerful engin ...
s and
artillery Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during siege ...
, Campbell surrendered on 29 May. Some Australians retreated into the hills to the south and, aided by the Cretans, 52 eventually escaped to Egypt.


Background

Greece became a
belligerent A belligerent is an individual, group, country, or other entity that acts in a hostile manner, such as engaging in combat. The term comes from the Latin ''bellum gerere'' ("to wage war"). Unlike the use of ''belligerent'' as an adjective meaning ...
in
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
when it was invaded by Italy on 28 October 1940. A British and
Commonwealth A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. Historically, it has been synonymous with "republic". The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the ...
expeditionary force was sent to support the Greeks; this force eventually totalled more than 60,000 men. British forces also garrisoned
Crete Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and ...
, enabling the Greek Fifth Cretan Division to reinforce the mainland campaign. This arrangement suited the British: Crete could provide the
Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
with excellent harbours in the eastern
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...
, and the
Ploiești Ploiești ( , , ), formerly spelled Ploești, is a city and county seat in Prahova County, Romania. Part of the historical region of Muntenia, it is located north of Bucharest. The area of Ploiești is around , and it borders the Blejoi commu ...
oil fields in
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
would be within range of British
bomber A bomber is a military combat aircraft designed to attack ground and naval targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry (such as bombs), launching aerial torpedo, torpedoes, or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. The first use of bombs dropped ...
s based on the island. The Italians were repulsed by the Greeks without the aid of the expeditionary force. In April 1941 a
German invasion German invasion may refer to: Pre-1900s * German invasion of Hungary (1063) World War I * German invasion of Belgium (1914) * German invasion of Luxembourg (1914) World War II * Invasion of Poland * German invasion of Belgium (1940) * G ...
overran mainland Greece and the expeditionary force was withdrawn. By the end of the month, 57,000
Allied An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
troops were evacuated by the Royal Navy. Some were sent to Crete to bolster its
garrison A garrison (from the French ''garnison'', itself from the verb ''garnir'', "to equip") is any body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it. The term now often applies to certain facilities that constitute a mil ...
, although most had lost their heavy equipment. The
German Army High Command The (; abbreviated OKH) was the high command of the Army of Nazi Germany. It was founded in 1935 as part of Adolf Hitler's rearmament of Germany. OKH was ''de facto'' the most important unit within the German war planning until the defeat at ...
(''Oberkommando des Heeres'', OKH) was preoccupied with the forthcoming
invasion of the Soviet Union Operation Barbarossa (german: link=no, Unternehmen Barbarossa; ) was the invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany and many of its Axis allies, starting on Sunday, 22 June 1941, during the Second World War. The operation, code-named afte ...
and was largely opposed to an attack on Crete. Adolf Hitler was concerned about attacks on the Romanian oil fields from Crete and
Luftwaffe The ''Luftwaffe'' () was the aerial-warfare branch of the German ''Wehrmacht'' before and during World War II. Germany's military air arms during World War I, the ''Luftstreitkräfte'' of the Imperial Army and the '' Marine-Fliegerabtei ...
commanders were enthusiastic about the idea of seizing the island by an airborne attack. In
Führer Directive Adolf Hitler's Directives, or Führer Directives (''Führerbefehle''), were instructions and strategic plans issued by Adolf Hitler himself. They covered a wide range of subjects, from detailed direction of the German Armed Forces' operations durin ...
28, Hitler ordered that Crete was to be invaded to use it "as an airbase against Britain in the Eastern Mediterranean". The directive also stated the operation was to take place in May and must not be allowed to interfere with the planned campaign against the Soviet Union.


Opposing forces


Allies

On 30 April 1941,
Major-general Major general (abbreviated MG, maj. gen. and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. The disappearance of the "sergeant" in the title explains the apparent confusion of a ...
Bernard Freyberg Lieutenant-General Bernard Cyril Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg, (21 March 1889 – 4 July 1963) was a British-born New Zealand soldier and Victoria Cross recipient, who served as the 7th Governor-General of New Zealand from 1946 to 1952. Freyb ...
, who had been evacuated from mainland Greece with the
2nd New Zealand Division The 2nd New Zealand Division, initially the New Zealand Division, was an infantry Division (military), division of the New Zealand Army, New Zealand Military Forces (New Zealand's army) during the World War II, Second World War. The division was ...
, was appointed commander-in-chief on Crete. He noted the acute lack of heavy weapons, equipment, supplies and communication facilities. Equipment was scarce in the Mediterranean, particularly in the backwater of Crete. The British forces on Crete had had seven commanders in seven months. No
Royal Air Force The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the United Kingdom's air and space force. It was formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, becoming the first independent air force in the world, by regrouping the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and ...
(RAF) units were based permanently on Crete until April 1941, but
airfield An aerodrome (Commonwealth English) or airdrome (American English) is a location from which aircraft flight operations take place, regardless of whether they involve air cargo, passengers, or neither, and regardless of whether it is for publ ...
construction took place,
radar Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the distance (''ranging''), angle, and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, w ...
sites were built and stores delivered. By early April, airfields at
Maleme Maleme ( el, Μάλεμε) is a small village and military airport to the west of Chania, in north western Crete, Greece. It is located in Platanias municipality, in Chania (regional unit), Chania regional unit. History Bronze Age A Late Minoan ...
and
Heraklion Heraklion or Iraklion ( ; el, Ηράκλειο, , ) is the largest city and the administrative capital of the island of Crete and capital of Heraklion regional unit. It is the fourth largest city in Greece with a population of 211,370 (Urban A ...
and the
landing strip According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft". Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, o ...
at Rethymno, all on the north coast, were ready, and another strip at Pediada-Kastelli was nearly finished. In the space of a week 27,000 Commonwealth troops arrived from mainland Greece, many lacking any equipment other than their personal weapons, and some not even those; 9,000 of them had been further evacuated when the battle commenced and 18,000 remained. With the pre-existing garrison of 14,000, this gave the Allies a total of 32,000 Commonwealth troops to face the German attack, supplemented by 10,000 Greeks. The Rethymno area was garrisoned by two Australian and two Greek battalions, commanded by
Lieutenant-colonel Lieutenant colonel ( , ) is a rank of commissioned officers in the armies, most marine forces and some air forces of the world, above a major and below a colonel. Several police forces in the United States use the rank of lieutenant colonel. ...
Ian Campbell. Both Australian battalions had fought in mainland Greece in April, suffering 180 casualties between them, and the first had only arrived at Rethymno on the 30th. The Australians totalled 1,270 experienced veterans and there were several smaller attached Commonwealth units. The Greeks were 2,300 strong, but most had received little training and were ill-equipped and extremely short of ammunition. Not all of the Greeks had rifles. For those who had, ammunition averaged fewer than 20 rounds per man; many were issued with only three rounds. Campbell also had eight artillery pieces: four 75 mm
calibre In guns, particularly firearms, caliber (or calibre; sometimes abbreviated as "cal") is the specified nominal internal diameter of the gun barrel bore – regardless of how or where the bore is measured and whether the finished bore match ...
and four captured Italian 100 mm guns. Rethymno itself was defended by a battalion of 800 well-armed
Greek Gendarmerie The Hellenic Gendarmerie (, ''Elliniki Chorofylaki'') was the national gendarmerie and military police (until 1951) force of Greece. History 19th century The Greek Gendarmerie was established after the enthronement of King Otto in 1833 as the ...
( paramilitary police) cadets. Campbell was in radio contact with Freyberg, but did not possess a code to decipher
encrypted In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding information. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as plaintext, into an alternative form known as ciphertext. Ideally, only authorized parties can decip ...
messages; as any messages sent in clear were liable to be intercepted by the Germans this severely restricted communications. The Rethymno landing strip was about east of the town, near the village of Pigi. A ridge dominated the coast road and the landing strip in this area, running from "Hill A" in the east overlooking the landing strip and the village of Stavromenos to "Hill B" to the west near the village of Platanes. To the south "Hill D" gave a clear view of the terrain inland. The Australian 2/1st Battalion (2/1st) was dug in on Hill A and the ridge to its west, supported by six
field gun A field gun is a field artillery piece. Originally the term referred to smaller guns that could accompany a field army on the march, that when in combat could be moved about the battlefield in response to changing circumstances ( field artille ...
s, while the Australian 2/11th Battalion (2/11th), supported by two field guns and several machineguns, was positioned on and around Hill B. The Greek 4th Regiment was situated on the ridge between the two Australian units and the 5th Regiment was positioned south of the ridge as a reserve. Two
Matilda II The Infantry Tank Mark II, best known as the Matilda, was a British infantry tank of the Second World War.Jentz, p. 11. The design began as the A12 specification in 1936, as a gun-armed counterpart to the first British infantry tank, the machin ...
heavy tanks were in a gully immediately west of the landing strip and Campbell's headquarters was established on Hill D. All of the Allied units were well dug in and well camouflaged. Food stocks were limited and were supplemented by local foraging.


Germans

The entire assault on Crete was code-named "Operation Mercury" () and was controlled by the 12th Army commanded by
Field Marshal Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army and as such few persons are appointed to it. It is considered as ...
Wilhelm List Wilhelm List (14 May 1880 – 17 August 1971) was a German field marshal during World War II who was convicted of war crimes by a US Army tribunal after the war. List commanded the 14th Army in the invasion of Poland and the 12th Army in the ...
. The German
8th Air Corps __NOTOC__ 8th Air Corps (''VIII. Fliegerkorps'') was formed 19 July 1939 in Oppeln as ''Fliegerführer z.b.V.'' ("for special purposes"). It was renamed to the 8th Air Corps on 10 November 1939. The Corps was also known as ''Luftwaffenkommando Sch ...
() provided close air support; it was equipped with 570 combat aircraft. The infantry available for the assault were the
German 7th Air Division The 1st Parachute Division (german: 1. Fallschirmjäger-Division) was an elite German military parachute-landing division that fought during World War II. A division of paratroopers was termed a ''Fallschirmjäger'' Division. For reasons of sec ...
, with the Air-landing Assault Regiment () attached, and the 5th Mountain Division. They totalled 22,000 men grouped under the 11th Air Corps (), which was commanded by
Lieutenant-general Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the ...
Kurt Student Kurt Arthur Benno Student (12 May 1890 – 1 July 1978) was a German general in the Luftwaffe during World War II. An early pioneer of airborne forces, Student was in overall command of developing a paratrooper force to be known as the ''Fallschi ...
, who was in operational control of the operation. Over 500
Junkers Ju 52 The Junkers Ju 52/3m (nicknamed ''Tante Ju'' ("Aunt Ju") and ''Iron Annie'') is a transport aircraft that was designed and manufactured by German aviation company Junkers. Development of the Ju 52 commenced during 1930, headed by German Aeros ...
s were assembled to transport them. Student planned a series of four parachute assaults against Allied facilities on the north coast of Crete by the 7th Air Division, which would then be reinforced by the 5th Mountain Division, part transported by air and part by sea; the latter component would also ferry much of the heavy equipment. Before the invasion, the Germans conducted a bombing campaign against Crete and the surrounding waters to establish
air superiority Aerial supremacy (also air superiority) is the degree to which a side in a conflict holds control of air power over opposing forces. There are levels of control of the air in aerial warfare. Control of the air is the aerial equivalent of c ...
. The RAF rebased its surviving aircraft to
Alexandria Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandria ...
after 29 of their 35 Crete-based fighters were destroyed. A few days before the attack, German intelligence summaries stated that the total Allied force on Crete consisted of 5,000 men, that the garrison of Heraklion was 400 strong and that Rethymno was not formally garrisoned. For the assault on Rethymno the Germans assigned the 2nd Parachute Regiment of the 7th Air Division, minus one battalion. This force was approximately 1,700 strong and was commanded by
Colonel Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of ...
Alfred Sturm __NOTOC__ Alfred Sturm (23 August 1888 – 8 March 1962) was a German general during World War II. During the Battle of Crete, Sturm (then an ''Oberst'') was commander of the 2nd Parachute Rifle Regiment. On 20 May 1941, he jumped from an aircra ...
. Sturm's plan was for the regiment's 3rd Battalion (2/III), reinforced by two
artillery Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during siege ...
units, to drop approximately east of Rethymno and capture the town. At the same time its 1st Battalion (2/I), reinforced by a machinegun company, would drop immediately to the east of the landing strip and capture it. Sturm himself would land mid-way between the two battalions with the regimental headquarters section and a reinforced company to act as a reserve.


Paratroopers

The design of the German
parachute A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag or, in a ram-air parachute, aerodynamic lift. A major application is to support people, for recreation or as a safety device for aviators, who ...
s, and the mechanism for opening them, imposed operational constraints on the
paratrooper A paratrooper is a military parachutist—someone trained to parachute into a military operation, and usually functioning as part of an airborne force. Military parachutists (troops) and parachutes were first used on a large scale during World ...
s. The static lines, which automatically opened the parachutes as the men jumped from the aircraft, were easily fouled and so each man wore a
coverall A boilersuit (or boiler suit), also known as coveralls, is a loose fitting garment covering the whole body except for the head, hands and feet. Terminology The term ''boilersuit'' is most common in the UK, where the 1989 edition of the ''Oxfo ...
over his webbing and equipment. This precluded their jumping with any weapon larger than a
pistol A pistol is a handgun, more specifically one with the chamber integral to its gun barrel, though in common usage the two terms are often used interchangeably. The English word was introduced in , when early handguns were produced in Europe, an ...
or a
grenade A grenade is an explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade), but can also refer to a shell (explosive projectile) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade) or a grenade launcher. A modern hand grenade genera ...
.
Rifle A rifle is a long-barreled firearm designed for accurate shooting, with a barrel that has a helical pattern of grooves ( rifling) cut into the bore wall. In keeping with their focus on accuracy, rifles are typically designed to be held with ...
s,
automatic weapons An automatic firearm is an auto-loading firearm that continuously chambers and fires rounds when the trigger mechanism is actuated. The action of an automatic firearm is capable of harvesting the excess energy released from a previous discharge ...
,
mortars Mortar may refer to: * Mortar (weapon), an indirect-fire infantry weapon * Mortar (masonry), a material used to fill the gaps between blocks and bind them together * Mortar and pestle, a tool pair used to crush or grind * Mortar, Bihar, a villag ...
,
ammunition Ammunition (informally ammo) is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. Ammunition is both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines) and the component parts of other weap ...
, food and water were dropped in separate containers. Until and unless the paratroopers reached these they had only pistols and hand
grenade A grenade is an explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade), but can also refer to a shell (explosive projectile) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade) or a grenade launcher. A modern hand grenade genera ...
s with which to defend themselves. The danger of fouling the static lines also required that German paratroopers leapt headfirst from their aircraft, and so were trained to land on all foursrather than the usually recommended feet together, knees-bent posturewhich resulted in a high incidence of wrist injuries. Once out of the plane, German paratroopers were unable to control their fall or to influence where they landed. Given the importance of landing close to one of the weapons containers, doctrine required jumps to take place from no higher than and in winds no stronger than . The transport aircraft had to fly straight, low and slowly, making them easy targets for any ground fire. Paratroopers were carried by the reliable tri-motored Ju 52. Each transport could lift thirteen paratroopers, with their weapons containers carried on the planes' external bomb racks.


Battle


Initial assault

On the morning of 20 May two reinforced German regiments landed by parachute and
assault glider Military gliders (an offshoot of common gliders) have been used by the militaries of various countries for carrying troops (glider infantry) and heavy equipment to a combat zone, mainly during the Second World War. These engineless aircraft were ...
at
Maleme airfield Maleme Airport ( el, Αεροδρόμιο Μάλεμε) is an airport situated at Maleme, Crete. It has two runways (13/31 and 03/21) with no lights. The airport has closed for commercial aviation, but the Chania Aeroclub continues to use it. Th ...
and near the main port of
Chania Chania ( el, Χανιά ; vec, La Canea), also spelled Hania, is a city in Greece and the capital of the Chania regional unit. It lies along the north west coast of the island Crete, about west of Rethymno and west of Heraklion. The muni ...
in the west of Crete. The aircraft which dropped them were scheduled to make further drops at Rethymno and Heraklion in the afternoon. In mainland Greece the Germans were having problems with their hastily constructed airfield facilities, which were to have consequences for their attack on Rethymno. They were blanketed with dust clouds, reducing safe
taxiing Taxiing (rarely spelled taxying) is the movement of an aircraft on the ground, under its own power, in contrast to towing or pushback where the aircraft is moved by a tug. The aircraft usually moves on wheels, but the term also includes aircra ...
speeds and making taking off and landing hazardous. Several Ju 52s which had been damaged by Allied ground fire in the morning crashed on landing and had to be towed clear of the runways. Refuelling was carried out by hand and took longer than anticipated. Aware this would mean a significant delay to when the drop around Rethymno would commence, the commander of the Ju 52
wing A wing is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid. Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as airfoils. A wing's aerodynamic efficiency is expres ...
,
Rüdiger von Heyking Rüdiger von Heyking (10 January 1894 – 18 February 1956) was a German officer and Lieutenant General of the Luftwaffe during World War II. Life Heyking was born to a noble family in Rastenburg, East Prussia, at the home of Heyking family. ...
, attempted to have the air support attack similarly delayed. Inadequate communication systems prevented this message from getting through in time. The parachute drop was scheduled to take place at 14:00, immediately after a pre-assault softening up from German air support intended to force the defenders to take cover, distract them from the paratrooper attack and interrupt communications. It was 16:00 before this pre-assault air attack commenced; as fewer than 20 aircraft were involved it was ineffective. Having been informed at 14:30 of the attacks to the west, Campbell's forces realised this might be the prelude to a paratrooper assault. At 16:15 the first 24 of an eventual total of 161 Ju 52s appeared. They flew parallel to the coast on their drop runs, in easy sight and range of the Allied troops on the ridge. During the afternoon at least seven of the transport aircraft were shot down and several others disappeared from sight trailing thick smoke. Evasive action by the German pilots resulted in some paratroopers landing in the sea. One group landed in a cane break resulting in all of its members being impaled and the parachutes of three Germans failed to open. Many Germans were shot and killed before they landed. Because of the disorder at the Greek mainland airfields, the German air operations over Rethymno were ill-coordinated. The paratrooper drops did not occur simultaneously. instead a succession of easy targets for Allied ground fire flew low, straight and level past the Allied-held coastal ridge. During this period no German fighters nor bombers returned to suppress the ground fire. The historian
Antony Beevor Sir Antony James Beevor, (born 14 December 1946) is a British military historian. He has published several popular historical works on the Second World War and the Spanish Civil War. Early life Born in Kensington, Beevor was educated at two ...
describes the Germans' situation at this point as "chaotic". The surviving Germans of the 2/I Battalion who had landed close to Hill A succeeded in reaching their weapons containers and attacked the hill. They were steadily reinforced by fellow paratroopers who had been dropped as far away as Stavromenos, from their target, and after fierce fighting the hill was captured. Campbell ordered his two Matilda II tanks to
counter-attack A counterattack is a tactic employed in response to an attack, with the term originating in "Military exercise, war games". The general objective is to negate or thwart the advantage gained by the enemy during attack, while the specific object ...
, but both became immobilised in the rough terrain. The Australians set up a blocking position on the ridge and planned a fresh counter-attack. The German 2/I Battalion dug in on the hilltop, having suffered 400 dead or wounded. Campbell radioed Freyberg asking for reinforcements to enable a counter-attack to recapture the hill. At midnight Freyberg replied that none were available; Freyberg instead sent what reinforcements he had towards the more threatened Chania sector. Meanwhile, many members of the 2/III Battalion had been dropped in the wrong location, landing among the Australian 2/11th Battalion, where most of them were killed or pinned down and later captured. The remainder landed as planned to the west of Platanes, around the village of Perivolia. A Greek reservist training battalion holding this area collapsed and the Germans were able to reach their weapons containers, regroup and march on Rethymno. At around 18:00 they attempted to enter the town, but were beaten off by the Greek gendarmerie, supported by armed civilians, who included several priests and a monk. The 2nd Parachute Regiment's headquarters section and attached company, almost 200 men, dropped into the middle of the Allied position and took heavy losses. During the night, 2/11th Battalion combed the area, capturing 88 prisoners and collecting a large quantity of weapons and ammunition. Sturm was himself taken prisoner on the 21st. The loss of all radio equipment during or immediately after the drop meant Student in Athens received no reports. At 19:00, he sent a plane to establish contact with the 2nd Parachute Regiment, but contact with it was lost and it failed to return.


Subsequent operations

At first light on 21 May the 2/11th and the 5th Regiment attempted to recapture Hill A, but were repulsed. Campbell ordered a fresh attack for 08:00. Meanwhile, the Germans were preparing their own attack; this was disrupted when they were mistakenly bombed by their own aircraft. The subsequent Allied attack was successful after fierce close quarters fighting and the surviving Germans withdrew to a solidly constructed olive oil factory near the village of Stavromenos. The Allies recaptured their artillery pieces and recovered their two abandoned tanks. The German 2/III Battalion renewed its attack on Rethymno on 21 May, but was beaten back and pinned down around Perivolia by the Greek gendarmerie from the town and armed civilians. This force was also bombed by its own aircraft, as well as being shelled by the Australians overlooking them from Hill B. When Ju 52s flew over, the Allies ceased fire and displayed captured panels requesting resupply; they received weapons, ammunition and equipment. That evening Student, still having received no news from the Rethymno landing, despatched another liaison aircraft. A German
seaplane A seaplane is a powered fixed-wing aircraft capable of takeoff, taking off and water landing, landing (alighting) on water.Gunston, "The Cambridge Aerospace Dictionary", 2009. Seaplanes are usually divided into two categories based on their tec ...
landed close offshore, a radio was transferred to rubber dinghy and this paddled towards the beach. The radio, dinghy and seaplane were destroyed by Australian fire. The Greek official history of the campaign states that in total on the 21st the Germans suffered 70 killed, 300 wounded and 200 taken prisoner. Over the next few days the Allies repeatedly attacked the German positions at both Perivolia and the factory. The two recovered tanks proved useful but unreliable, repeatedly breaking down or bogging down on rough ground. The remnants of the 2/III Battalion hung on in an increasingly battered Perivolia, where the Australians used captured signal panels to direct German bombing onto the paratroopers. There were many German air attacks in support of the 2/III Battalion: one on 22 May against Rethymno killed several civilians, including the local
prefect Prefect (from the Latin ''praefectus'', substantive adjectival form of ''praeficere'': "put in front", meaning in charge) is a magisterial title of varying definition, but essentially refers to the leader of an administrative area. A prefect's ...
and the commander of the gendarmerie battalion. Several attempted Allied attacks on Perivolia came to nothing. Late on 23 May, the Germans launched an attack on the Australians with strong air support, but gained no ground. Part of the air support was again directed against Rethymno, where the local hospital was bombed. An attack on the olive oil factory on 22 May was unsuccessful when the 2/lst Battalion and the 4th Greek Regiment failed to coordinate. On 26 May, the Australians and the Greek 5th Regiment stormed the factory, taking about 100 prisoners, of whom 42 were wounded. The 30 surviving able-bodied men of the 2/I Battalion escaped to the east. The historian Callum Macdonald states that on 20 May "little quarter had been given by either side" but that subsequently "the fighting became less savage". By the end of the battle, the Allies had taken prisoner more than 500 Germans. A joint hospital was set up near Adele, with German and Australian doctors working alongside each other. Conditions for all of the wounded were grim, with parachutes being cut up for bandages and no
anesthetic An anesthetic (American English) or anaesthetic (British English; see spelling differences) is a drug used to induce anesthesia ⁠— ⁠in other words, to result in a temporary loss of sensation or awareness. They may be divided into two ...
s. Most of the German dead lay where they had fallen; there were more than 400 bodies in front of the Allied positions. They bloated in the sun and were attacked by ravens. Intelligence officers searched them for documents, they were looted for souvenirs and the locals stole their boots. Beevor states some bodies were "hacked about by civilians". The state of the bodies resulted in claims of the mutilation and torture of wounded paratroopers, which were picked up and broadcast by Nazi radio.


Surrender

Meanwhile, the Germans had won the battle for Maleme airfield, captured the port town of Chania and pushed the Allies there east and south. On 26 May, Freyberg informed
General A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of highest military ranks, high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry. In some usages the term "general officer" refers t ...
Archibald Wavell Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, (5 May 1883 – 24 May 1950) was a senior officer of the British Army. He served in the Second Boer War, the Bazar Valley Campaign and the First World War, during which he was wounded ...
, Commander-in-Chief
Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...
, that the Battle of Crete was lost. The next day Wavell ordered the evacuation of the island. Freyberg wanted the force at Rethymno to head south for Plakias, from where they might be evacuated, but Campbell was unable to decipher encrypted radio messages and Freyberg did not want to risk alerting the Germans to the evacuation plans by sending the orders in clear. Freyberg ordered a messenger to carry the orders via a supply vessel sailing to Rethymno during the night of 27/28 May, but it left before the messenger could board. Several attempts were made to drop a message from aircraft on 27 and 28 May, but all failed and Campbell remained ignorant of the overall situation. He had sent an officer to Freyberg's headquarters earlier in the battle, who had returned on 26 May and reported that there was no suggestion of evacuation. On the morning of 29 May a German force commanded by
Lieutenant-colonel Lieutenant colonel ( , ) is a rank of commissioned officers in the armies, most marine forces and some air forces of the world, above a major and below a colonel. Several police forces in the United States use the rank of lieutenant colonel. ...
August Wittmann __NOTOC__ August Wittmann (20 July 1895 – 29 March 1977) was a general in the Wehrmacht during World War II. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Life and career August Wittmann was born in Munich on 20 July 1895. He ent ...
approached from the east. It was composed of units of the 85th and 141st
Mountain A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited Summit (topography), summit area, and ...
Regiments and 31st
Tank A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle intended as a primary offensive weapon in front-line ground combat. Tank designs are a balance of heavy firepower, strong armour, and good battlefield mobility provided by tracks and a powerful engin ...
Regiment and included tanks and heavy artillery. The Germans attacked and isolated the Allied positions east of Rethymno. The Allies had all but consumed their food supplies and exhausted their ammunition and so Campbell surrendered, some time after noon. All of the German prisoners were released. Of the Australians, 934 survived to be taken prisoner, 190 of them wounded, and 96 were killed in the fighting. Many men from the 2/11th Battalion made off on their own and, assisted by the local population, 13 officers and 39 other ranks escaped to Egypt. The two Greek regiments withdrew, the 4th to Adele, where it surrendered, and the 5th to
Arkadi Arkadi ( el, Αρκάδι) is a former municipality in the Rethymno (regional unit), Rethymno regional unit, Crete, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Rethymno, of which it is a municipal unit. The municip ...
, from where its membersmany of whom were Cretandispersed. The number of Greek casualties suffered during the battle is not known.


Aftermath

Crete fell to the Germans, but they suffered more casualties taking it than in the entire campaign in the Balkans until then. Almost 200 Ju 52s were put out of action. Due to their heavy losses on Crete, the Germans attempted no further large-scale airborne operations. Both the 2/1st and 2/11th battalions were reformed in
Palestine __NOTOC__ Palestine may refer to: * State of Palestine, a state in Western Asia * Palestine (region), a geographic region in Western Asia * Palestinian territories, territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank (including East ...
around the small cadres of their surviving members. The German occupation of Crete was brutal: 3,474 Cretan civilians were executed by firing squad and many more were killed in reprisals and atrocities. The commander of the German troops on Crete,
Major-general Major general (abbreviated MG, maj. gen. and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. The disappearance of the "sergeant" in the title explains the apparent confusion of a ...
Hans-Georg Benthack __NOTOC__ Hans-Georg Benthack (2 March 1894 – 17 August 1973) was a general in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Awards and decorations * Knight's Cross of the Iron C ...
, unconditionally surrendered in Heraklion on 9 May 1945 at the end of the war. Several places in Rethymno are named after Ian Campbell.


Notes, citations, and sources


Notes


Citations


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Rethymno, Battle Of Battle of Crete Battles of World War II involving Germany Battles involving Greece Battles of World War II involving Australia Rethymno May 1941 events 1941 in Greece