The Battle of Penfui took place on 9 November 1749 in the hillside of Penfui, near modern
Kupang
Kupang ( id, Kota Kupang, ), formerly known as Koepang, is the capital of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. At the 2020 C ensus, it had a population of 442,758; the official estimate as at mid 2021 was 455,850. It is the largest ci ...
. A large
Topass
Topass (Topass, Topass Seaman or Topas) was a term used by the British Merchant Navy for the man who acted as an interpreter for a group or gang of Lascars or South Asian seamen on British vessels since at least the mid nineteenth century. Usual ...
army was defeated by a numerically inferior
Dutch East India Company
The United East India Company ( nl, Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the VOC) was a chartered company established on the 20th March 1602 by the States General of the Netherlands amalgamating existing companies into the first joint-stock ...
force following the withdrawal of the former's Timorese allies from the battlefield, resulting in the death of the Topass leader
Gaspar da Costa. Following the battle, both Topass and Portuguese influence on Timor declined, eventually leading to the formation of a boundary between Dutch and Portuguese Timor which precipitated into the modern border between
West Timor
West Timor ( id, Timor Barat) is an area covering the western part of the island of Timor, except for the district of Oecussi-Ambeno (an East Timorese exclave). Administratively, West Timor is part of East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. The ca ...
and
East Timor
East Timor (), also known as Timor-Leste (), officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is an island country in Southeast Asia. It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the exclave of Oecusse on the island's north-weste ...
.
Background
Following the
loss of Malacca to the Dutch in 1641, the Portuguese there moved to
Gowa
Gowa ('' Makassar language : '') is a regency in the province of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. It has an area of 1,883.33 km2 and a population of 652,329 at the 2010 census, increasing to 765,836 at the 2020 census; the official estimate as at m ...
-
Kingdom of Tallo The Kingdom of Tallo was one of the two kingdoms of Makassar in South Sulawesi from the 15th century to 1856. The state stood in a close political relation to the Sultanate of Gowa. After the Islamization of the Gowa and Tallo kingdoms in the early ...
before they were expelled from there as well, forcing the remnants to move to either Dutch
Batavia
Batavia may refer to:
Historical places
* Batavia (region), a land inhabited by the Batavian people during the Roman Empire, today part of the Netherlands
* Batavia, Dutch East Indies, present-day Jakarta, the former capital of the Dutch East In ...
or Portuguese-controlled
Timor
Timor is an island at the southern end of Maritime Southeast Asia, in the north of the Timor Sea. The island is East Timor–Indonesia border, divided between the sovereign states of East Timor on the eastern part and Indonesia on the western p ...
and the
Solor Archipelago. Portuguese presence in the region had started since 1520 when they established
Lifau
Lifau is a village and suco in the East Timor exclave of Oecusse District. The village is located west of the mouth of the Tono River. 1,938 people live in the suco.
History
Lifau was the first European settlement on the island of Timor. Do ...
, and was largely represented by the
Topasses
Topasses (Tupasses, Topas, Topaz) were a group of people led by the two powerful families – Da Costa and Hornay – that resided in Oecussi and Flores. The Da Costa families were descendants of Portuguese Jewish merchants and Hornay were Dutch ...
– "black Portuguese" consisting of mixed European-Asian descendants, freed slaves known as
Mardijkers, and some local Christians. The Topasses held significant influence in the island's politics.
Relations between the "black" and "white" Portuguese communities soured at times, with open conflicts in the early 18th century as the Portuguese attempted to introduce direct rule by installing a governor. They were all subsequently removed, and there was no direct governorship from Portugal until 1748.
Portuguese forces had invaded the interior of Timor in 1642, establishing their rule over the inland polities. The
Dutch East India Company
The United East India Company ( nl, Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the VOC) was a chartered company established on the 20th March 1602 by the States General of the Netherlands amalgamating existing companies into the first joint-stock ...
(VOC) captured the Portuguese fort at
Solor
Solor is a volcanic island located off the eastern tip of Flores island in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia, in the Solor Archipelago. The island supports a small population that has been whaling for hundreds of years. They speak the lang ...
in 1613 and established themselves in what is today
Kupang
Kupang ( id, Kota Kupang, ), formerly known as Koepang, is the capital of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. At the 2020 C ensus, it had a population of 442,758; the official estimate as at mid 2021 was 455,850. It is the largest ci ...
on Timor after defeating the Portuguese there in 1653.
They allied with the native polities such as
Sonbai Sonbai (also spelt ''Sonnebay'', ''Sonba'i'', or ''Sonbait'') was an Indonesian princely dynasty that reigned over various parts of West Timor from at least the 17th century until the 1950s. It was known as the most prestigious princedom of the Aton ...
and
Amabi
Amabi was a traditional principality in West Timor in the currently East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. From at least the 17th century to 1917, Amabi played a role in the rivalries between the Portuguese and Dutch colonials on Timor Islan ...
in 1655, but were defeated in ensuing conflicts. Intermittent wars and fighting occurred throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with the Dutch reconstructing their fort at Kupang in 1746. During this period, Dutch control of Timor and surrounding areas was largely limited to their Kupang fort and surroundings. In early 1749, the ruler of Sombai (which was returned to Portuguese influence prior) reallied themselves with the Dutch and settled with their followers near Kupang, causing
Gaspar da Costa, leader of the Topasses, to gather an army from both the Topass and the local polities aligned to Portugal.
On 18 October 1749, the ruler of
Amabi
Amabi was a traditional principality in West Timor in the currently East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. From at least the 17th century to 1917, Amabi played a role in the rivalries between the Portuguese and Dutch colonials on Timor Islan ...
informed the Dutch of a large army assembling. Da Costa wanted to force Sombai to swear fealty to him, with the aid of Portuguese-aligned rulers in the area in addition to men from
Larantuka. The Amarassi ''raja'', one of the rulers aligned with da Costa, sent an envoy to attempt to convince the Kupang ''raja'' and the Dutch to remain neutral in the conflict.
Forces
Dutch accounts estimated "tens of thousands" of enemy forces, ranging from 20,000 to 50,000, although this figure was likely an exaggeration as Timor's population then was far below half a million. Some of the men were from native leaders who had been forced to join the army, and several leaders had been killed by da Costa as he suspected them of defecting to the Dutch. According to oral traditions, the army was assembled at Nunuhenu, in
Ambeno
The Ambeno was a traditional kingship on the north coast of Timor, among the Atoni people. Its area is now in the Oecusse district (former ''Oecussi-Ambeno'') of East Timor
East Timor (), also known as Timor-Leste (), officially the Democr ...
, before it marched towards Kupang. Da Costa was not supported by the Portuguese authorities, and also did not hold full control over the Topass – with the competing de Hornay family not participating in the battle.
Aside from allies, which did not participate in the initial fighting, there were around 500 Dutch soldiers – a sergeant and two corporals, 20 Europeans, 130
Mardijkers, 240 from
Sabu, 60 from
Solor
Solor is a volcanic island located off the eastern tip of Flores island in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia, in the Solor Archipelago. The island supports a small population that has been whaling for hundreds of years. They speak the lang ...
, and 30 from
Rote, in addition to volunteers from the company. All were provided firearms. In addition, there were additional soldiers who were garrisoned in Kupang's fortress and town. The Dutch force was commanded by
Ensign
An ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern (rear) of the ship while in port. The naval ensign (also known as war ensign), used on warships, may be diffe ...
Christoffel Lipp, while the Mardijkers were commanded by Frans Mone Kana.
Prior to the battle, large parts of Kupang's population fled the town, fearing the approaching army, with Dutch accounts noting the local VOC commander needing to convince their native allies into fighting. The men from Rote and Sabu were also initially demoralized, with VOC having to give promises and sinking the ships before they could be used to flee.
Battle
Da Costa's army camped at Penfui, a hillside to the east of Kupang, and constructed stone and earthen forts there. On Sunday morning of 9 November 1749, the Dutch forces departed Kupang to engage the encampment. Upon encountering the incoming Dutch forces, the
Amarasi, who was assigned to the frontmost fortification, sent the Dutch an envoy saying that they "could from now on be called friends of the Dutch" and the Amarasi abandoned the battlefield, without pursuit from the Dutch. As the Dutch moved on to other fortifications, the other Timorese forces who had been forced into the army followed suit and left the battlefield. After the battle, many of the polities under da Costa would realign with the Dutch.
Fighting occurred as the Dutch attempted to take the fortifications one at a time, and as the tide of the battle turned in favor of the Dutch, their Timorese allies joined the fighting. Eventually, with the Topasses trapped in the final fortification, da Costa attempted to flee the battlefield, but was struck down from his horse by an
assegai
An assegai or assagai (Arabic ''az-zaġāyah'', Berber languages, Berber ''zaġāya'' "spear", French language, Old French ''azagaie'', Spanish ''azagaya'', Italian ''zagaglia'', Middle English ''lancegay'') is a pole weapon used for throwing, ...
before he went far, and was beheaded. Others who attempted to escape the battle were also pursued and killed, with around 2,000 dead, including many Topass officers and three native ''rajas''. Dutch casualties were minimal, with 19 Timorese, a Mardijker, and two volunteers killed outside of the injuries.
In the immediate aftermath of the battle, the Timorese beheaded the dead bodies, with a letter to the VOC Governor-General in Batavia from the Dutch's Timorese allies reporting over a thousand heads taken. Topass regalia, of spiritual meaning to them, were also seized. When informed of the outcome of the battle, the Portuguese Governor of Timor remarked that da Costa deserved his fate, with da Costa having ignored his attempts to stop him from launching the campaign.
Swedish historian remarked that though the large army was a "feat" from da Costa, the Timorese were not used to lengthy military campaigns and that the ensuing defeat of da Costa was "logical".
Aftermath
The defeat resulted in the decline of the Topass influence in Timor, and weakened Portuguese power on the island. In the following twelve years, local polities in Timor shifted their allegiances from the Portuguese to the Dutch. In 1769, Portuguese authorities on the island later shifted their headquarters from
Lifau
Lifau is a village and suco in the East Timor exclave of Oecusse District. The village is located west of the mouth of the Tono River. 1,938 people live in the suco.
History
Lifau was the first European settlement on the island of Timor. Do ...
in the west to
Dili
Dili (Portuguese/Tetum: ''Díli'') is the capital, largest city of East Timor and the second largest city in Timor islands after Kupang (Indonesia). It lies on the northern coast of the island of Timor, in a small area of flat land hemmed in ...
in the east, due to both the Dutch and the Topasses.
Dutch historian remarked that though impressions of the battle as a turning point in Timorese history are an "exaggeration", the balance of power in the island shifted dramatically after the battle, and had da Costa achieved victory, Timor and the Solor archipelago might have remained Portuguese. In later local tradition, the VOC's victory was attributed to divine intervention, including by the Topasses themselves.
Ensign Lipp, who commanded the Dutch forces, later fell out with the ''
opperhoofd ''Opperhoofd'' is a Dutch word (plural ''opperhoofden'') that literally translates to "upper-head", meaning "supreme headman". The Danish equivalent ''overhoved'', which is derived from a Danish pronunciation of the Dutch or Low German word, is a ...
'' of Kupang and his contribution was suppressed. Similarly, the Mardijkers were also not credited due to their potential danger for VOC. Due to the Dutch victory, the
Protestant
Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
church maintained its presence on Timor, though there were no immediate attempts to enforce the religion to the locals. Around 50,000 inhabitants of Timor became VOC subjects, and in the 1750s multiple Catholic rulers converted to the
Dutch Reformed Church
The Dutch Reformed Church (, abbreviated NHK) was the largest Christian denomination in the Netherlands from the onset of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century until 1930. It was the original denomination of the Dutch Royal Family and ...
.
Throughout the 1750s, the Dutch commander at Kupang launched campaigns against the Topasses in order to further weaken their presence, taking several Topass forts,
but eventually failed multiple times to seize their stronghold at , partly due to Makassarese merchants supplying the Topass with gunpowder, in addition to logistical and alliance issues. Due to this, Dutch attempts to take part in Timorese affairs toned down until the mid-nineteenth century.
The eventual Dutch-Portuguese boundary, not formalized until the nineteenth century, that ensued due to the stalemate continued into the twentieth century until the
Indonesian invasion of East Timor
The Indonesian invasion of East Timor, known in Indonesia as Operation Lotus ( id, Operasi Seroja), began on 7 December 1975 when the Indonesian National Armed Forces, Indonesian military (ABRI/TNI) invaded East Timor under the pretext of anti-c ...
. The area where the battle occurred is now the site of the
El Tari International Airport
El Tari International Airport ( id, Bandar Udara Internasional El Tari) is an airport in Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. The airport is named after El Tari (1926–1978), the governor of East Nusa Tenggara from 1966 to 1978. The airpo ...
.
See also
*
Treaty of Lisbon (1859)
The Treaty of Demarcation and Exchange Some Portuguese Possessions and Dutch in the archipelago of Solor and Timor (Portuguese: Tratado de Demarcação e Troca de Algumas Possessões Portuguesas e Neerlandesas no Arquipélago de Solor e Timor) was ...
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
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{{Refend
Penfui
1749 in Asia
History of Timor
Penfui