The Battle of Marash ( tr, Maraş Muharebesi), also called the "Marash Affair",
was a battle that took place in the early winter of 1920 between the
French forces occupying the city of
Maraş in the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
and the
Turkish National Forces
The Kuva-yi Milliye ( ota, قواى مليه; 'National Forces' or 'Nationalist Forces') were irregular Turkish militia forces active in the early period of the Turkish War of Independence. These irregular forces emerged after the occupation of ...
linked to
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, or Mustafa Kemal Pasha until 1921, and Ghazi Mustafa Kemal from 1921 Surname Law (Turkey), until 1934 ( 1881 – 10 November 1938) was a Turkish Mareşal (Turkey), field marshal, Turkish National Movement, re ...
. It was the first major battle of the
Turkish War of Independence
The Turkish War of Independence "War of Liberation", also known figuratively as ''İstiklâl Harbi'' "Independence War" or ''Millî Mücadele'' "National Struggle" (19 May 1919 – 24 July 1923) was a series of military campaigns waged by th ...
, and the three-week-long engagement in the city ultimately forced the French to abandon and retreat from Marash and resulted in a Turkish massacre of
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
refugees who had just been repatriated to the city following the
Armenian Genocide
The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was ...
.
Background
After the surrender of the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
to the
Allies
An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
in October 1918, the city of Marash had come under the joint-occupation of the British and French armies (the latter largely composed of
Armenians
Armenians ( hy, հայեր, ''hayer'' ) are an ethnic group native to the Armenian highlands of Western Asia. Armenians constitute the main population of Armenia and the ''de facto'' independent Artsakh. There is a wide-ranging diaspora ...
from the
French Armenian Legion).
[Hovannisian & Payaslian (2008) p. 497] In February 1919, Field Marshal
Edmund Allenby
Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, (23 April 1861 – 14 May 1936) was a senior British Army officer and Imperial Governor. He fought in the Second Boer War and also in the First World War, in which he led th ...
appointed a number of French officers to oversee the administration of the region of
Cilicia
Cilicia (); el, Κιλικία, ''Kilikía''; Middle Persian: ''klkyʾy'' (''Klikiyā''); Parthian: ''kylkyʾ'' (''Kilikiyā''); tr, Kilikya). is a geographical region in southern Anatolia in Turkey, extending inland from the northeastern coa ...
and the repatriation of tens of thousands of Armenians who had been deported during the war in the course of the Genocide. Within a few months, approximately 150,000 Armenians had been repatriated, including 20,000 natives from Marash.
In the months following the end of the war, Cilicia had also become a source of dispute between the British and French, who both aspired to establish influence in the region. The British government, however, was under strong domestic pressure to withdraw and demobilize its forces in the Middle East and on 15 September 1919, Prime Minister
David Lloyd George
David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. He was a Liberal Party politician from Wales, known for leading the United Kingdom during t ...
begrudgingly accepted a proposal by Prime Minister
Georges Clemenceau
Georges Benjamin Clemenceau (, also , ; 28 September 1841 – 24 November 1929) was a French statesman who served as Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909 and again from 1917 until 1920. A key figure of the Independent Radicals, he was a ...
to have the French formally assume control of Cilicia. The transfer of command took place on 4 November, but Field Marshal
Ferdinand Foch
Ferdinand Foch ( , ; 2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929) was a French general and military theorist who served as the Supreme Allied Commander during the First World War. An aggressive, even reckless commander at the First Marne, Flanders and Art ...
's promise to reinforce the existing forces in the area with at least 32 infantry
battalion
A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of 300 to 1,200 soldiers commanded by a lieutenant colonel, and subdivided into a number of companies (usually each commanded by a major or a captain). In some countries, battalions are ...
s, 20 cavalry
squadrons and 14
artillery batteries
In military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit or multiple systems of artillery, mortar systems, rocket artillery, multiple rocket launchers, surface-to-surface missiles, ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, etc., so grouped to facil ...
went unfulfilled. The French units were thus deprived of armoured cars and air support and lacked automatic weapons, heavy artillery and even wireless transmitters and
carrier pigeons
The homing pigeon, also called the mail pigeon or messenger pigeon, is a variety of domestic pigeons (''Columba livia domestica'') derived from the wild rock dove, selective breeding, selectively bred for its ability to find its way home over e ...
.
[Hovannisian & Payaslian (2008) pp. 499-501. The French army was largely made up of Algerian or Senegalese soldiers who were not used to Cilicia's cold winter weather.]
Sütçü İmam incident also contributed to sparking of public unrest.
Turkish Nationalist movements
![Osmanu-vilajeti-haleba](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Osmanu-vilajeti-haleba.svg)
The Anglo-French rivalry had led to the coalescence and strengthening of the
Turkish National Movement
The Turkish National Movement ( tr, Türk Ulusal Hareketi) encompasses the political and military activities of the Turkish revolutionaries that resulted in the creation and shaping of the modern Republic of Turkey, as a consequence of the defe ...
under the leadership of
Mustafa Kemal Pasha
Mustafa ( ar, مصطفى
, Muṣṭafā) is one of the names of Prophet Muhammad, and the name means "chosen, selected, appointed, preferred", used as an Arabic given name and surname. Mustafa is a common name in the Muslim world.
Given name Mou ...
. Atatürk had denounced the Allied occupation of Cilicia in November 1919 and the forces loyal to him were tenaciously preparing to launch a major insurrection against the thinly spread French units garrisoned in Marash,
Antep
Gaziantep (), previously and still informally called Aintab or Antep (), is a major city and capital of the Gaziantep Province, in the westernmost part of Turkey's Southeastern Anatolia Region and partially in the Mediterranean Region, approximat ...
and
Urfa
Urfa, officially known as Şanlıurfa () and in ancient times as Edessa, is a city in southeastern Turkey and the capital of Şanlıurfa Province. Urfa is situated on a plain about 80 km east of the Euphrates River. Its climate features e ...
. Experienced officers, including the captain
Ali Kılıç
Ali Kılıç or Kilij Ali also known as Kılıç Ali Bey (born as Suleiman Asaf, 1890; Istanbul, Constantinople - July 14, 1971; Istanbul) was a Turkish people, Turkish officer of the Military of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Army and Turkish Lan ...
, were sent by Mustafa Kemal to organize the tribal units and bands of ''chete'' (irregular fighters) in the region. The Turkish nationalist movement was able to gain the support of local Muslims in Cilicia who had benefited from stolen Armenian properties and did not want to return them to the original owners.
The Turkish forces in Marash numbered 2,500.
Some of them were armed with old hunting rifles and others with
melee weapon
A melee weapon, hand weapon or close combat weapon is any handheld weapon used in hand-to-hand combat, i.e. for use within the direct physical reach of the weapon itself, essentially functioning as an additional (and more impactful) extension of th ...
s. Before the battle, they obtained 850 rifles, two machine guns and two cannons (not used during the fighting), from the
gendarmerie
Wrong info! -->
A gendarmerie () is a military force with law enforcement duties among the civilian population. The term ''gendarme'' () is derived from the medieval French expression ', which translates to " men-at-arms" (literally, ...
building in Marash.
Those without firearms armed themselves with rifles acquired from dead French soldiers.
By January 1920, French supply convoys and communication lines were regularly coming under attack by the partisans and those Armenians who had been repatriated were being harassed and pressured to leave their homes once more.
[Hovannisian & Payaslian (2008) p. 502.] The French attempted to mollify the minority Muslim elements (
Circassians
The Circassians (also referred to as Cherkess or Adyghe; Adyghe and Kabardian: Адыгэхэр, romanized: ''Adıgəxər'') are an indigenous Northwest Caucasian ethnic group and nation native to the historical country-region of Circassia in ...
,
Alevis
Alevism or Anatolian Alevism (; tr, Alevilik, ''Anadolu Aleviliği'' or ''Kızılbaşlık''; ; az, Ələvilik) is a local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical Alevi Islamic ( ''bāṭenī'') teachings of Haji Bektash Veli, ...
,
Kurds ug:كۇردلار
Kurds ( ku, کورد ,Kurd, italic=yes, rtl=yes) or Kurdish people are an Iranian ethnic group native to the mountainous region of Kurdistan in Western Asia, which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Ir ...
) in Marash by creating
gendarmerie
Wrong info! -->
A gendarmerie () is a military force with law enforcement duties among the civilian population. The term ''gendarme'' () is derived from the medieval French expression ', which translates to " men-at-arms" (literally, ...
units but this only emboldened the Turkish Nationalists to hoist the Turkish flag over Marash's abandoned citadel and to intimidate those Muslims who cooperated with the French. The French troops in Marash included many Algerians, and also Armenians who had been recently enlisted, and it was stated that the latter had supposedly "annoyed the local population, by their arrogant attitude as they strolled on the streets in their French uniforms."
Seeing all this, Captain Pierre-Jean Daniel André, the head of the Marash detachment, requested additional reinforcements but, due to the indecisiveness of his superior, Lt. Colonel Jean Flye-Sainte-Marie, he was ordered to go to
Adana
Adana (; ; ) is a major city in southern Turkey. It is situated on the Seyhan River, inland from the Mediterranean Sea. The administrative seat of Adana Province, Adana province, it has a population of 2.26 million.
Adana lies in the heart ...
to apprise the division commander, Brigadier General Julien Dufieux, of the situation. Dufieux agreed to send extra men under the command of General Quérette to Marash but by 17 January when the reinforcements arrived, the French had already lost the initiative: supply convoys in Bel Punar and El-Oghlu had come under attack and a relief column led by battalion commander Major Corneloup had been ambushed.
[Hovannisian & Payaslian (2008) pp. 506-09] On 21 January, General Quérette summoned the Muslim notables of Marash to his headquarters at a barracks in the north of the city and presented them with evidence pointing to their complicity in the attacks and demanded that they put an end to the hostilities. As the leaders departed, Turkish police chief
Arslan Toğuz
Arslan ToğuzTürk Parlamento Tarihi Araştırma Grubu, ''Türk Parlamento Tarihi, Millî Mücadele ve T.B.M.B. I. Dönem 1919-1923 - III. Cilt: I. Dönem Milletvekillerin Özgeçmişleri'', Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Vakfı Yayınları, An ...
drew out his pistol and fired five rounds into the air, signalling the beginning of the uprising.
[''The Lions of Marash'' (1973) Kerr pp. 95-96]
Battle and Siege
![Armenian legion](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Armenian_legion.png)
The first French units to come under attack were those officers accompanying the local gendarmerie, or standing guard. The contingents of the French garrison at Marash, numbering only 2,000 men, were separated from one another in the citywide siege. Direct communications did not exist between Marash and division headquarters and General Dufieux was only informed of the insurrection on 31 January, after several Armenians from the French Armenian Legion managed to disguise themselves as Muslims and cross the battle lines.
[Hovannisian & Payaslian (2008) pp.510-11] He immediately appointed Lieutenant Colonel Robert Normand to lead a relief expedition to Marash, composed of three infantry battalions and half a squadron of cavalry, and dispatched aerial recon flights, giving hope to the besieged French, Armenians and American relief workers who were assisting the local population.
Colonel Robert Normand related the account of his campaign in Cilicia, including the campaign of Marash, in his book ''Colonnes dans le Levant''. He led a brilliant career in the French army when he returned to France. He was promoted to General de brigade, the youngest in the army to reach the grade. He ultimately became Directeur du Génie, the highest responsibility in the engineering Corps. As such, he was responsible of the construction of the
Ligne Maginot in France. He died, as General de Division, in a train accident in 1932.
On 7 February, Normand's unit fought its way into the city and began to bombard the Turkish positions with heavy artillery. The following day, he relieved Cornelope's column, which had held its position for two weeks, and broke through to reach General Quérette's headquarters. To Quérette's astonishment, Normand told that he had come with orders from General Dufieux to begin the full evacuation of the French garrison of Marash, followed by the Christian and loyal Muslim population. Quérette was reluctant to carry out such a command but Normand claimed that no more reinforcements or supplies would be sent. With this in mind Quérette agreed to the evacuation.
The order to evacuate ironically came at precisely the same moment that the Turkish Nationalists were seeking a ceasefire: no sooner had General Quérette begun negotiations with the Turkish representative, Dr. Mustafa, when he was told by Normand to prepare to evacuate.
By 3:00 in the morning of 11 February, Quérette had destroyed the remaining ammunition dumps and was preparing to slip out under the cover of darkness. They were, however, unable to do so and 3,000 Armenians managed to flee with the French troops in a three-day, long march to
İslahiye. A thousand of the Armenian refugees had died from exhaustion and from the bitter cold by the time they reached İslahiye on 13 February.
The French casualties of the battle included 160 killed, 280 wounded, 170 missing and 300 severely
frostbitten.
[Hovannisian (1996). pp. 41-42.]
Massacre of Armenians
The three-week siege of Marash was also accompanied by the massacre of the Armenian repatriates. Early reports put the number of Armenian dead at no less than 16,000, although this was later revised down to 5,000–12,000, which were considered far more likely figures.
[''Documents on British Foreign Policy'', vol. 7, p. 303.][''The Lions of Marash'' (1973) Kerr p. 196] A surgeon at the German hospital reported that around 3,000 Armenians in the area around the Church of
Saint Stephen
Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ''Stéphanos'', meaning "wreath, crown" and by extension "reward, honor, renown, fame", often given as a title rather than as a name; c. 5 – c. 34 AD) is traditionally venerated as the protomartyr or first ...
had been killed by Turkish,
Kurdish
Kurdish may refer to:
*Kurds or Kurdish people
*Kurdish languages
*Kurdish alphabets
*Kurdistan, the land of the Kurdish people which includes:
**Southern Kurdistan
**Eastern Kurdistan
**Northern Kurdistan
**Western Kurdistan
See also
* Kurd (dis ...
and
Cherkess villagers.
The Armenians, as they had in previous times of trouble, sought refuge in their churches and schools.
There were six
Armenian Apostolic
, native_name_lang = hy
, icon = Armenian Apostolic Church logo.svg
, icon_width = 100px
, icon_alt =
, image = Էջմիածնի_Մայր_Տաճար.jpg
, imagewidth = 250px
, a ...
, three
Armenian Evangelical
The Armenian Evangelical Church ( hy, Հայաստանեայց Աւետարանական Եկեղեցի) was established on July 1, 1846, by thirty-seven men and three women in Constantinople.
History
In the 19th century there was an intellectua ...
churches and one
Catholic
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
cathedral. Some, who had fled St. Stephen's before it was put to the torch, sought shelter in the
Franciscan
The Franciscans are a group of related Mendicant orders, mendicant Christianity, Christian Catholic religious order, religious orders within the Catholic Church. Founded in 1209 by Italian Catholic friar Francis of Assisi, these orders include t ...
monastery, while others still hid in a soap factory, subsisting on stores of
dried fruit
Dried fruit is fruit from which the majority of the original water content has been removed either naturally, through sun drying, or through the use of specialized dryers or dehydrators. Dried fruit has a long tradition of use dating back to th ...
s, ''
tarhana
Tarhana is a dried food ingredient, based on a fermented mixture of grain and yoghurt or fermented milk, found in the cuisines of Central Asia, Southeast Europe and the Middle East. Dry tarhana has a texture of coarse, uneven crumbs, and it i ...
'' and olive oil for several days before the Turks reached them.
[''The Lions of Marash'' (1973) Kerr p. 122.] The American relief hospital came under fire on January 22. The Armenian legionnaires attempted to put up a defense but were ultimately overwhelmed. All the churches and eventually the entire Armenian districts were put to flames.
[ Muré, Materne (1921). ''Un épisode de la tragédie arménienne: le massacre de Marache (février 1920)''. Brussels: Société Belge de Libraire.][''The Lions of Marash'' (1973) Kerr p. 142.][Sahakyan. ''Turkish-French Relations'', pp. 150–52.] The plight of the Armenians was only exacerbated when the French decided to pull out on 10 February. When the 2,000 Armenians who had taken shelter in the Catholic cathedral attempted to follow the retreat, they were cut down by Turkish rifle and machine gun fire.
Aftermath
At the
London Conference in February 1920 the
Allied Supreme Council
The Supreme War Council was a central command based in Versailles (city), Versailles that coordinated the military strategy of the principal Allies of World War I: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Britain, French Third Republic, Franc ...
, which at the time was working out the details to a peace treaty that it would present to the Ottoman government, were amazed by news of the defeat of the French army and the massacre of the Armenians at Marash.
The French High Command however did not publicly indicate that anything serious had taken place. Internally, however, they were astonished by this move launched by the Turkish Nationalists.
The battle and the massacre were discussed fervently in the European and American press, as well as the
British Parliament
The Parliament of the United Kingdom is the supreme legislative body of the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories. It meets at the Palace of Westminster, London. It alone possesses legislative supremacy ...
. Lloyd George was concerned that Atatürk's army of regulars existed, blaming poor military intelligence.
Colonel Normand's role in ordering the evacuation, in particular, stirred controversy as members of General Dufieux's staff maintained that no evacuation order had ever been given. Dufieux, however, was inexplicably told by senior commander and General of the
Army of the Levant Henri Gouraud that he should let the matter drop.
French Colonel
Édouard Brémond Édouard is both a French given name and a surname, equivalent to Edward in English. Notable people with the name include:
* Édouard Balladur (born 1929), French politician
* Édouard Boubat (1923–1999), French photographer
* Édouard Colonne (1 ...
, the chief administrator of the occupation zone, reflected on the decision in his memoirs:
A few years later, he stated frankly, "Colonel Normand did not ''bring'' an order for the evacuation; he ''gave'' it
mphasis in the original"
In his own analysis of the conflict, the American relief worker Stanley E. Kerr attributes the withdrawal ''inter alia'' to the untenable position the French military itself had assumed, its failure to provide adequate supplies to its men, and its inability to carry out intelligence work.
[''The Lions of Marash'' (1973) Kerr pp. 194-95]
In
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, Allied military representatives pushed to threaten the Ottoman government for the affair, while the French simultaneously explored the possibility of reaching a ''
modus vivendi'' with Atatürk. The Allied Supreme Council deliberated on how best to respond; some of the delegates present, including Lloyd-George, insisted that strong pressure should be brought to bear against the Ottoman government to prevent new atrocities. Other diplomats were sceptical of the idea. The officials also agreed that the Ottoman government should dismiss Atatürk from office, although they admitted that such a move was impractical, since the Ottoman government held no control over Atatürk, who was leading a counter Turkish government in Anatolia. Despite objections made by the
British War Office
The War Office was a department of the British Government responsible for the administration of the British Army between 1857 and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the new Ministry of Defence (MoD). This article contains text from ...
, a decision was finally reached on 10 March. British, French and Italian leaders agreed to authorize the formal
occupation of Constantinople
The occupation of Istanbul ( tr, İstanbul'un İşgali; 12 November 1918 – 4 October 1923), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, by United Kingdom, British, France, French, Italy, Italian, and Greece, Greek forces, took place in accordance with ...
, which was carried out by the forces under General
George F. Milne's command on the morning of 16 March. The decision was carried out
[Hovannisian (1996). pp. 43-48.]
On 7 April 1925, Marash became one of two cities in Turkey to receive a
Turkish Medal of Independence (the other city being
İnebolu
İnebolu is a town and district of the Kastamonu Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. It is from Istanbul by road and north of Kastamonu. It is a typical Black Sea port town with many fine examples of traditional domestic architecture. Ac ...
).
[ Kemal, Mustafa. ''Atatürk'ün bütün eserleri'' he Complete Works of Atatürk Istanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 1998, vol. xvii, p. 219.]
See also
*
Franco-Turkish War
The Franco–Turkish War, known as the Cilicia Campaign (french: La campagne de Cilicie) in France and as the Southern Front ( tr, Güney Cephesi) of the Turkish War of Independence in Turkey, was a series of conflicts fought between France (the ...
*
Chronology of the Turkish War of Independence
This chronology of the Turkish War of Independence (also known as Turkish war of liberation) is a timeline of events during the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923). The timeline also includes the background events starting with the en ...
References
Further reading
* Boyajian, Dickran H. (1965). ''Հայկական Լէգիոնը, Պատմական Հուշագրութիւն''
he Armenian Legion: A Historical Memoir Watertown, MA: Baikar Press.
* Brémond, Édouard, "The Bremond Mission: Cilicia in 1919–1920, Part 1," ''
Armenian Review
''The Armenian Review'' is an academic journal that has been published in Watertown, Massachusetts since 1948. It publishes articles on topics related to Armenia and Armenians
Armenians ( hy, հայեր, ''hayer'' ) are an ethnic group ...
'' 29/4 (Winter 1976), pp. 339–72.
* _______________, "The Bremond Mission: Cilicia in 1919–1920, Part 2," ''Armenian Review'' 30/1 (Spring 1977), pp. 34–72.
* Genelkurmay Başkanlığı Harb Tarihi Dairesi (1966). ''Türk Istiklal Harbi'' (''The Turkish War of Independence''). vol. iv. Ankara: Gnkur. Basimevi.
*
*
*
* Muré, Materne (1921). ''Un épisode de la tragédie arménienne: le massacre de Marache (février 1920)''. Brussels: Société Belge de Libraire.
* Sahakyan, Ruben G. (1970). ''Թուրք-Ֆրանսիական հարաբերությունները և Կիլիկյան, 1919–1921 թթ.''
urkish-French Relations and Cilicia, 1919–1921 Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences.
* Söylemzoğlu, Galip Kemali (1939). ''Başımıza gelenler: yakın bir mazinin hatıraları, Mondorosdan Mudanyaya 1918–1922''
he Tribulations We Faced: Memories of the Recent Past, From Mudros to Mundaya Istanbul: Kanaat Kitabevi.
* Varadian, Sarkis, "Memoirs of an Armenian Legionaire," ''
Armenian Weekly
''Armenian Weekly'' (originally ''Hairenik Weekly'') is an English Armenian publication published by Hairenik Association, Inc. in Watertown, Massachusetts in the United States. It is the sister publication to the Armenian language weekly ''Hai ...
'', June 11, 1977, pp. 8–9.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Maras
Battles of the Franco-Turkish War
Battle of Maras
1920 in France
1920 in the Ottoman Empire
Aleppo vilayet
History of Kahramanmaraş
January 1920 events
February 1920 events