The Battle of Kapetron or Kapetrou was fought between a
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
-
Georgian
Georgian may refer to:
Common meanings
* Anything related to, or originating from Georgia (country)
** Georgians, an indigenous Caucasian ethnic group
** Georgian language, a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians
**Georgian scripts, three scrip ...
army and the
Seljuq Turks
The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids ( ; fa, سلجوقیان ''Saljuqian'', alternatively spelled as Seljuqs or Saljuqs), also known as Seljuk Turks, Seljuk Turkomans "The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes
by the Turk ...
at the plain of Kapetron (modern
Hasankale/Pasinler in northeastern
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
) in 1048. The event was the culmination of a major raid led by the Seljuq prince
Ibrahim Inal
Ibrahim Inal (also spelled İbrahim Yınal, died 1060) was a Seljuk warlord, the son of ''Yûsuf Yınal'' and a foster brother of the Sultan Tughril.
In 1047, Ibrahim wrested Hamadan and Kangavar from the Kakuyid ruler Garshasp I. Ibrahim late ...
into Byzantine-ruled
Armenia
Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...
. A combination of factors meant that the regular Byzantine forces were at a considerable numerical disadvantage against the Turks: the local
thematic armies had been disbanded, while many of the professional troops had been diverted to the
Balkans
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
to face the revolt of
Leo Tornikios
Leo Tornikios ( el, Λέων Τορνίκιος) was a mid-11th century Byzantine general and noble. In 1047, he rebelled against his cousin, the Byzantine Emperor, Constantine IX Monomachos (). He raised an army in Thrace and marched on the cap ...
. As a result, the Byzantine commanders,
Aaron and
Katakalon Kekaumenos Katakalon Kekaumenos ( el, Κατακαλὼν Κεκαυμένος) was a prominent Byzantine general of the mid-11th century.
Biography
Katakalon Kekaumenos was born in Koloneia, and although apparently a member of the noble Katakalon family, ...
, disagreed on how best to confront the invasion. Kekaumenos favoured an immediate and pre-emptive strike, while Aaron favoured a more cautious strategy until the arrival of reinforcements. Emperor
Constantine IX
Constantine IX Monomachos ( grc-x-medieval, Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος, translit=Kōnstantinos IX Monomachos; 1004 – 11 January 1055), reigned as Byzantine emperor from June 1042 to January 1055. Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita ...
chose the latter option and ordered his forces to adopt a passive stance, while requesting aid from the Georgian ruler
Liparit IV. This allowed the Turks to ravage at will, notably leading to the sack and destruction of the great commercial centre of
Artze Artze ( hy, Արծն; gr, Ἄρτζε) was a town in Medieval Armenia in the 10th–11th centuries.
It was located some 55 km east of the Byzantine city of Theodosiopolis, in the district of Phasiane on the borderlands between Armenia and I ...
.
After the Georgians arrived, the combined Byzantine–Georgian force gave battle at Kapetron (modern
Hasankale
Pasinler or Basean ( tr, Pasinler; hy, Բասէն, translit=Pasēn; ka, ბასიანი, tr; la, Phasiani; el, Φασιανοί, translit=Phasianoí; formerly Hasankale and Hesenqele, meaning "the fortress of Hasan"), is a town in Erzuru ...
). In a fierce nocturnal battle, the Christian allies managed to repel the Turks, and Aaron and Kekaumenos, in command of the two flanks, pursued the Turks until the next morning. In the centre, however, Inal managed to capture Liparit, a fact of which the two Byzantine commanders were not informed until after they had given thanks to God for their victory. Inal was able to return unmolested to the Seljuq capital at
Rayy
Shahr-e Ray ( fa, شهر ری, ) or simply Ray (Shar e Ray; ) is the capital of Ray County in Tehran Province, Iran. Formerly a distinct city, it has now been absorbed into the metropolitan area of Greater Tehran as the 20th district of municip ...
, carrying enormous plunder. The two sides exchanged embassies, leading to the release of Liparit and the start of diplomatic relations between the Byzantine and Seljuq courts. Emperor Constantine IX took steps to strengthen his eastern frontier, but due to internal infighting the Turkish invasions did not recommence until 1054. The Turks experienced increasing success, aided by the renewed diversion of Byzantine troops to the Balkans to fight the
Pechenegs
The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks tr, Peçenek(ler), Middle Turkic: , ro, Pecenegi, russian: Печенег(и), uk, Печеніг(и), hu, Besenyő(k), gr, Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται, ka, პა ...
, disputes between the various ethnic groups of the eastern Byzantine provinces, and the decline of the Byzantine army.
Background
After the conquest of territories in present-day
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
by the
Seljuq Empire
The Great Seljuk Empire, or the Seljuk Empire was a high medieval, culturally Turko-Persian, Sunni Muslim empire, founded and ruled by the Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks. It spanned a total area of from Anatolia and the Levant in the west to t ...
, a large number of
Oghuz Turks arrived on the Byzantine borderlands of
Armenia
Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...
in the late 1040s. Eager for plunder and distinction in the path of ''
jihad
Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with Go ...
'', they began raiding the Byzantine provinces in Armenia. At the same time, the eastern defences of the Byzantine Empire had been weakened by Emperor
Constantine IX Monomachos
Constantine IX Monomachos ( grc-x-medieval, Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος, translit=Kōnstantinos IX Monomachos; 1004 – 11 January 1055), reigned as Byzantine emperor from June 1042 to January 1055. Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita ...
(), who allowed the
thematic troops (provincial levies) of
Iberia
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
and
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
to relinquish their military obligations in favour of tax payments.
The Seljuq expansion westward was a confused affair, as it was accompanied by a mass migration of Turkish tribes. These tribes were only nominally subjects of the Seljuq rulers, and their relations were dominated by a complex dynamic: while the Seljuqs aimed at establishing a state with an orderly administration, the tribes were more interested in plunder and new pasture lands, and launched raids independently of the Seljuq court. The latter tolerated this phenomenon, as it helped to defuse tensions in the Seljuq heartlands.
A first large-scale raid against the eastern Byzantine province of
Vaspurakan
Vaspurakan (, Western Armenian pronunciation: ''Vasbouragan'') was the eighth province of the ancient kingdom of Armenia, which later became an independent kingdom during the Middle Ages, centered on Lake Van. Located in what is now southeaster ...
may have been undertaken around 1045 by
Qutalmish
Qutalmish ibn Arslan ( 1ca, قُتَلمِش, fa, قتلمش) (alternative spellings: Qutalmis, Kutalmish, ) was a Turkic prince who was a member of Seljukid house in the 11th century. His son Kutalmışoğlu Suleiman, founded the Sultanate of R ...
, a cousin of the Seljuq ruler
Tughril Beg
Abu Talib Muhammad Tughril ibn Mika'il ( fa, ابوطالب محمد تغریل بن میکائیل), better known as Tughril (; also spelled Toghril), was a Turkmen"The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes
by the Turk ...
. Qutalmish defeated and captured the local Byzantine commander,
Stephen Leichoudes. Another large-scale invasion, under Tughril's nephew, Hasan the Deaf, was launched soon after from
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the List of largest cities of Iran, sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quri Chay, Quru River valley in Iran's historic Aze ...
into
Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
. Returning via Vaspurakan, Hasan's army was ambushed and destroyed east of
Lake Van
Lake Van ( tr, Van Gölü; hy, Վանա լիճ, translit=Vana lič̣; ku, Gola Wanê) is the largest lake in Turkey. It lies in the far east of Turkey, in the provinces of Van and Bitlis in the Armenian highlands. It is a saline soda lake ...
by the local Byzantine commanders, the ''
katepano
The ''katepánō'' ( el, κατεπάνω, lit. "he oneplaced at the top", or " the topmost") was a senior Byzantine military rank and office. The word was Latinized as ''capetanus/catepan'', and its meaning seems to have merged with that of the ...
'' of Vaspurakan,
Aaron, and the ''katepano'' of
Ani
Ani ( hy, Անի; grc-gre, Ἄνιον, ''Ánion''; la, Abnicum; tr, Ani) is a ruined medieval Armenian city now situated in Turkey's province of Kars, next to the closed border with Armenia.
Between 961 and 1045, it was the capital of the ...
and Iberia,
Katakalon Kekaumenos Katakalon Kekaumenos ( el, Κατακαλὼν Κεκαυμένος) was a prominent Byzantine general of the mid-11th century.
Biography
Katakalon Kekaumenos was born in Koloneia, and although apparently a member of the noble Katakalon family, ...
. This first raid is variously dated either to 1045/46 or 1048.
An even larger invasion followed, under
Ibrahim Inal
Ibrahim Inal (also spelled İbrahim Yınal, died 1060) was a Seljuk warlord, the son of ''Yûsuf Yınal'' and a foster brother of the Sultan Tughril.
In 1047, Ibrahim wrested Hamadan and Kangavar from the Kakuyid ruler Garshasp I. Ibrahim late ...
, the half-brother of Tughril Beg. The Byzantine sources regard this as a retaliation for Hasan's defeat, but as
Anthony Kaldellis
Anthony Kaldellis ( gr, Αντώνιος Καλδέλλης; born 29 November 1971) is a Greek historian who is Professor and a faculty member of the Department of Classics at the University of Chicago. He is a specialist in Greek historiograph ...
points out, there were other factors at play as well:
Ibn al-Athir
Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ash-Shaybānī, better known as ʿAlī ʿIzz ad-Dīn Ibn al-Athīr al-Jazarī ( ar, علي عز الدین بن الاثیر الجزري) lived 1160–1233) was an Arab or Kurdish historian a ...
reports that Ibrahim had at this time received a large number of recent Oghuz arrivals from
Transoxiana
Transoxiana or Transoxania (Land beyond the Oxus) is the Latin name for a region and civilization located in lower Central Asia roughly corresponding to modern-day eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, parts of southern Kazakhstan, parts of Tu ...
, and that, unable to provide for them, sent them to raid the Byzantine provinces of Armenia, promising that he would soon follow with his own troops.
The events of this campaign are well attested through the histories of the Armenian historians
Aristakes Lastivertsi
Aristakes Lastivertsi (; 1002 – 1080) was a medieval Armenian historian and chronicler. The author of many works, Aristakes' most valuable contribution in the field of the historiography was his ''History: About the Sufferings Visited Upon ...
and
Matthew of Edessa
Matthew of Edessa (, Matevos Uṛhayetsi; late 11th century – 1144) was an Armenian historian in the 12th century from the city of Edessa (, ''Uṛha''). Matthew was the superior abbot of Karmir Vank' (Red Convent), near the town of Kaysun ...
, and the Byzantine official
John Skylitzes
John Skylitzes, commonly Latinized as Ioannes, la, Johannes, label=none, la, Iōannēs, label=none Scylitzes ( el, Ἰωάννης Σκυλίτζης, ''Iōánnēs Skylítzēs'', or el, Σκυλίτση, ''Skylítsē'', label=none ; la, ...
. Ibrahim's invasion is usually dated by modern sources to 1048 although some date it to 1049.
Seljuq invasion and Byzantine reaction
![Emperor Constantine IX](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Emperor_Constantine_IX.jpg)
Skylitzes reports, with obvious exaggeration, that the invaders numbered 100,000 men, or five times as many as Hasan's force. He also adds the detail that alongside the Turks, the Seljuq army also counted many "''Dilimnites''" (
Daylamites
The Daylamites or Dailamites (Middle Persian: ''Daylamīgān''; fa, دیلمیان ''Deylamiyān'') were an Iranian people inhabiting the Daylam—the mountainous regions of northern Iran on the southwest coast of the Caspian Sea, now comprisin ...
) and "''Kabeiroi''" (probably
Khurasani Iranians). Indeed, Skylitzes mentions that Ibrahim had two lieutenants, one "''Chorosantes''" (possibly a corruption of ''Khurasani''), who likely commanded the Khurasani contingent, and "''Aspan Salarios''", clearly a hellenisation of the Persian military rank ''
ispahsalar
''Ispahsālār'' ( fa, اسپهسالار) or ''sipahsālār'' (; "army commander"), in Arabic rendered as ''isfahsalār'' () or ''iṣbahsalār'' (), was a title used in much of the Islamic world during the 10th–15th centuries, to denote the sen ...
''.
Like the previous raid, the Seljuq force most likely set out from Tabriz and, following the course of the
Araxes River
, az, Araz, fa, ارس, tr, Aras
The Aras (also known as the Araks, Arax, Araxes, or Araz) is a river in the Caucasus. It rises in eastern Turkey and flows along the borders between Turkey and Armenia, between Turkey and the Nakhchivan ex ...
, entered Vasurakan. Ibn al-Athir reports that raiding detachments reached as far as
Trebizond in
Chaldia and the
Akampsis river in the north, and the districts of
Taron and
Chorzianene in the south, but this probably refers to the Oghuz raiders Ibrahim had sent out, rather than the main part of his army. Ibrahim's main army raided the district of
Basean
Phasiane ( el, Φασιανοί ''Phasianoi''; hy, Բասեն ''Basean;'' ka, ბასიანი ''Basiani'') is a historical region now part of the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey, as well as the name given to the region where the Aras Ri ...
, and the area between
Theodosiopolis,
Artze Artze ( hy, Արծն; gr, Ἄρτζε) was a town in Medieval Armenia in the 10th–11th centuries.
It was located some 55 km east of the Byzantine city of Theodosiopolis, in the district of Phasiane on the borderlands between Armenia and I ...
, and the district of
Mananalis.
On the Byzantine side, Skylitzes records a difference of opinion as to how to counter the Seljuq invasion: Kekaumenos—who was probably one of the historian's main sources and is generally lionised by Skylitzes—reportedly argued that they should confront them as soon as possible, while they were still weary from their march and the Byzantines were in high spirits after their recent victory. Aaron, on the other hand, argued in favour of a defensive strategy against such a large army, recommending withdrawing behind their fortifications and conserving their forces until Emperor Constantine IX sent clear instructions.
It is clear that the Byzantines were considerably outnumbered, likely as an effect not only of the reduction of the eastern provincial troops under Constantine IX, but also due to the diversion of much of the
tagmatic troops (standing, professional forces) to deal with a revolt of the western armies under
Leo Tornikios
Leo Tornikios ( el, Λέων Τορνίκιος) was a mid-11th century Byzantine general and noble. In 1047, he rebelled against his cousin, the Byzantine Emperor, Constantine IX Monomachos (). He raised an army in Thrace and marched on the cap ...
in 1047. As a result, Aaron's view prevailed; messages were sent to
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
to inform the Emperor, and in the meantime the Byzantine troops made camp on the plain of Outrou in Basean, while the civilian population was ordered to find refuge in the local fortresses. Indeed, Emperor Constantine IX quickly sent orders that they should avoid action until the arrival of reinforcements, namely the Georgians of
Liparit IV, Duke of Kldekari
Liparit IV, sometimes known as Liparit III ( ka, ლიპარიტ IV II}), was an 11th-century Georgian general and political figure who was at times the most valuable support of King Bagrat IV of Georgia (1027–1072) and his most dange ...
, to whom the Emperor wrote requesting his aid.
Sack of Artze
The Byzantine army's inactivity had tragic consequences, as the Seljuqs were able to move about freely, and attack the fortress of Artze, a wealthy market town which attracted merchants from Syria and Armenia. The inhabitants resisted successfully for a while, as the Seljuqs could not overcome the barricades they had hastily erected; but Kekaumenos' urgings to go to the town's aid were rebuffed, according to Skylitzes, by his fellow generals on account of the Emperor's order. Finally, the Seljuqs dropped flammable material and torches into the town, so that the defenders, caught between a raging fire and the Turkish archers, broke and fled. The town was captured and plundered, and its inhabitants massacred; Skylitzes writes that "around 150,000 souls reportedly perished" by sword or by fire, although this number is considered exaggerated by some modern scholars.
Battle
![The Byzantines are defeated by Aplesphares](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/The_Byzantines_are_defeated_by_Aplesphares.jpg)
Once Liparit IV arrived with his army, the combined Byzantine–Georgian army moved from Ourtrou to the plain before the fortress of Kapetron (modern
Hasankale
Pasinler or Basean ( tr, Pasinler; hy, Բասէն, translit=Pasēn; ka, ბასიანი, tr; la, Phasiani; el, Φασιανοί, translit=Phasianoí; formerly Hasankale and Hesenqele, meaning "the fortress of Hasan"), is a town in Erzuru ...
). Ibn al-Athir claims that the Byzantine–Georgian troops numbered 50,000 men, while Aristakes Lastivertsi raises the number to 60,000. Just as with the Turkish army, both figures are clearly exaggerated.
Again, according to Skylitzes, Kekaumenos' advice to attack the isolated Turkish detachments as they arrived was not heeded, because it was a Saturday (18 September) and Liparit considered it an unlucky day and refused to fight. This gave time for the Turks to bring up their entire army and form battle lines, before advancing on the Byzantine–Georgian army, which now was forced "to prepare to give battle, willy-nilly". Kekaumenos commanded the right wing, faced on the Turkish side by Ibrahim himself. Liparit held the centre, faced by Aspan Salarios, while the Byzantine left was commanded by Aaron, who was faced by Chorosantes.
The battle began late in the evening, and lasted through the night. Aaron and Kekaumenos, in command of their respective flanks, each defeated the Turks and pursued them "till cock's crow", killing the Turkish commander Chorosantes in the process. In the centre, however, Ibrahim managed to capture Liparit, who was thrown off his horse when it was wounded. This was not known to the two Byzantine commanders, who thought the Georgian prince was pursuing the enemy as they were; they were not informed of the true events until after they had stopped their pursuit to give thanks to God for their victory. Matthew of Edessa, whose narrative is heavily anti-Byzantine, claims that Liparit was betrayed by the Byzantine commanders, while Aristakes claims that the rivalry between the Byzantine commanders led Aaron to abandon his position mid-battle, leading to Liparit's capture. Skylitzes' account, however, being far more detailed, is considered more reliable by modern scholars.
While Ibrahim managed to escape with his men and captives to the fortress of Kastrokome (Okomi), some 40 km east of Theodosiopolis, the Byzantine commanders held a council of war and decided to divide their forces and return to their respective bases: Aaron with his men returned to Vaspurakan, and Kekaumenos with his forces to Ani.
The overall result of the battle was thus mixed: while the Byzantines prevailed against their Turkish counterparts, the capture of Liparit and the successful escape of Ibrahim led many of the medieval sources to consider it a Byzantine defeat.
Aftermath
![Caucasus 1060 map en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Caucasus_1060_map_en.svg)
According to Skylitzes, Ibrahim returned to Rayy in only five days, presenting himself before his brother. Ibn al-Athir reports—with obvious exaggeration for propaganda purposes—that Ibrahim brought back 100,000 captives and a vast booty, including large numbers of horses, flocks, and goods, as well as 8,000 coats of mail, loaded on the backs of ten thousand camels.
The devastation left behind by the Seljuq raid was so fearful that in 1051/52 the Byzantine magnate
Eustathios Boilas described those lands as "foul and unmanageable... inhabited by snakes, scorpions, and wild beasts". The Muslim sources on the other hand, follow the conventions of ''jihad'' narratives in stressing the success of the campaign in reaching deep into Byzantine territory—allegedly only 15 days' march from Constantinople—and the amount of plunder and captives seized. These successes were widely publicized to serve political aims: taking up the mantle of ''jihad'' against the age-old enemy of Islam legitimized the upstart Seljuqs and bolstered their claims to be the pre-eminent power in the Muslim world, particularly in their chosen role as
champions
A champion (from the late Latin ''campio'') is the victor in a challenge, contest or competition. There can be a territorial pyramid of championships, e.g. local, regional / provincial, state, national, continental and world championships, a ...
of
Sunni
Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word '' Sunnah'', referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagr ...
orthodoxy against the
Shi'a
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his S ...
Fatimid Caliphate
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Isma'ilism, Ismaili Shia Islam, Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the ea ...
.
Emperor Constantine IX lamented Liparit's capture, and tried to secure his release, offering a rich ransom. The Seljuq ruler set Liparit free and gave him the ransom, after extracting a pledge from him not to fight against the Turks again. Tughril—perhaps swayed by his brother's claims that the campaign had been an unalloyed success—also sent a ''
sharif
Sharīf ( ar, شريف, 'noble', 'highborn'), also spelled shareef or sherif, feminine sharīfa (), plural ashrāf (), shurafāʾ (), or (in the Maghreb) shurfāʾ, is a title used to designate a person descended, or claiming to be descended, fr ...
'' to Constantinople to demand tribute of Constantine IX, but the envoy was sent back empty-handed. Constantine IX did, however, agree to allow Tughril to sponsor the restoration of the mosque of the Byzantine capital, and to have the names of the Abbasid caliph
al-Qa'im and of Tughril himself
commemorated in the
Friday prayer instead of the Fatimid caliph's.
Expecting an imminent resumption of Seljuq raids, the Emperor sent agents to fortify his eastern border, but Tughril was occupied for a time with the revolt of Ibrahim, instigated, according to Skylitzes, by the Seljuq ruler's jealousy of the achievements of his brother. This is likely also the moment when the Byzantines launched an offensive, under the ''
rhaiktor
The ( grc-x-byzantine, ῥαίκτωρ, the Hellenized form of la, rector) was a high-ranking court position of the middle Byzantine Empire.
History and functions
J. B. Bury assumed that the post was created either under Leo VI the Wise () or ...
''
Nikephoros, against their old adversary,
Abu'l-Aswar Shavur ibn Fadl
Abu'l-Aswar or Abu'l-Asvar Shavur ibn Fadl ibn Muhammad ibn Shaddad was a member of the Shaddadid dynasty. Between 1049 and 1067 he was the eighth Shaddadid ruler of Arran (today in western Azerbaijan) from Ganja. Prior to that, he ruled the cit ...
, the
Shaddadid
The Shaddadids were a Kurdish Sunni Muslim dynasty. who ruled in various parts of Armenia and Arran from 951 to 1199 AD. They were established in Dvin. Through their long tenure in Armenia, they often intermarried with the Bagratuni royal fami ...
emir of
Dvin.
Nevertheless, the Byzantine defences in the east were weakened again as troops were transferred to the
Balkans
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
to face the invasions of the
Pechenegs
The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks tr, Peçenek(ler), Middle Turkic: , ro, Pecenegi, russian: Печенег(и), uk, Печеніг(и), hu, Besenyő(k), gr, Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται, ka, პა ...
, which began at that time. The Seljuq raids recommenced on a large scale in 1054, with Tughril himself leading them: the cities of
Paipert and
Perkri were sacked, and
Manzikert
The Battle of Manzikert or Malazgirt was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Empire on 26 August 1071 near Manzikert, theme of Iberia (modern Malazgirt in Muş Province, Turkey). The decisive defeat of the Byzantine army and th ...
was besieged. The Turkish incursions continued, with increasing success, as the native Byzantine troops were run down by neglect from the central government, increasingly replaced by unreliable mercenaries, and misguided policies exacerbated the rivalries and disputes between Byzantine Greeks, Armenians, and
Syriacs in the Empire's eastern provinces. As the balance of power turned, the Seljuqs began capturing major urban centres in Armenia, notably Ani. This set the stage for the calamitous
Battle of Manzikert
The Battle of Manzikert or Malazgirt was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Empire on 26 August 1071 near Manzikert, theme of Iberia (modern Malazgirt in Muş Province, Turkey). The decisive defeat of the Byzantine army and th ...
in 1071, which opened the way for the Turkish invasion and the following Byzantine civil war facilitated their conquest of Asia Minor in the following decade.
Footnotes
References
Sources
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Kapetron
1048 in Asia
1040s in the Byzantine Empire
11th century in Armenia
11th century in the Kingdom of Georgia
Kapetron
Kapetron
Conflicts in 1048
Kapetron