The Battle of Hippo Regius was a naval encounter during

Caesar's Civil War Caesar's civil war (49–45 BC) was one of the last politico-military conflicts of the Roman Republic before its reorganization into the Roman Empire. It began as a series of political and military confrontations between Gaius Julius Caesar and ...

which occurred off the coast of the

African African or Africans may refer to: * Anything from or pertaining to the continent of Africa: ** People who are native to Africa, descendants of natives of Africa, or individuals who trace their ancestry to indigenous inhabitants of Africa *** Ethn ...

city of

Hippo Regius Hippo Regius (also known as Hippo or Hippone) is the ancient name of the modern city of Annaba, Algeria. It historically served as an important city for the Phoenicians, Berbers, Romans, and Vandals. Hippo was the capital city of the Vandal King ...

in 46 BC.

Metellus Scipio Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio (c. 95 – 46 BC), often referred to as Metellus Scipio, was a Roman senator and military commander. During the civil war between Julius Caesar and the senatorial faction led by Pompey, he was a staunch supp ...

and a number of influential senators from the

Optimate Optimates (; Latin for "best ones", ) and populares (; Latin for "supporters of the people", ) are labels applied to politicians, political groups, traditions, strategies, or ideologies in the late Roman Republic. There is "heated academic dis ...

faction were fleeing the disastrous

Battle of Thapsus A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and for ...

when their fleet was intercepted and destroyed by

Publius Sittius Publius Sittius (died 44 BC) was a Ancient Rome, Roman equites and mercenary commander. As a mercenary he was employed by king Bocchus II of Mauretania, East-Mauretania. Sittius fought for Bocchus against king Juba I of Numidia, capturing Juba's cap ...

, a mercenary commander in the employ of the Mauretanian king

Bogud Bogud (died 31 BC), son of King Mastanesosus of Mauretania, was a Berber joint king of Mauretania with his elder brother Bocchus II, with Bocchus ruling east of the Moulouya River and his brother west. An important ally of Julius Caesar, Bogud lat ...

, an ally of Gaius Julius Caesar's. Scipio committed suicide and all of the other senators were killed during the battle.

Background

Escalating tensions over the previous decade between

Gaius Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...

and the

Roman Senate The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...

, rallying around

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...

("Pompey the Great"), culminated in Caesar

crossing the Rubicon The phrase "crossing the Rubicon" is an idiom that means "passing a point of no return". Its meaning comes from allusion to the crossing of the river Rubicon by Julius Caesar in early January 49 BC. The exact date is unknown. Scholars us ...

river in January 49 BC and thus being labelled as an enemy of the people. With civil war ignited Caesar quickly gained control of the Italian Peninsula before eventually pursuing Pompey to Greece and defeating him in the

Battle of Pharsalus The Battle of Pharsalus was the decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War fought on 9 August 48 BC near Pharsalus in central Greece. Julius Caesar and his allies formed up opposite the army of the Roman Republic under the command of Pompey. P ...

. Pompey was assassinated as he attempted to flee to Ptolemaic Egypt precipitating Caesar's intervention in an ongoing civil war. After a year spent in

Alexandria Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandria ...

, Caesar began to coordinate his efforts against the remaining

forces concentrated in the north of

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

. After landing in Africa, the Optimates gathered to confront Caesar as he besieged the city of

Thapsus Thapsus, also known as Tampsus and as Thapsus Minor to distinguish it from Thapsus in Sicily, was a Carthaginian and Roman port near present-day Bekalta, Tunisia. Geography Thapsus was established on Ras ed-Dimas, an easily defended promontory ...

. The force arrayed against Caesar was commanded primarily by

, who had taken this eminent position following the death of Pompey the Great. The ensuing

battle A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force ...

was a disaster for Scipio and his numerically superior army was completely routed by Caesar.

Prelude

became a mercenary in Northern Africa after being implicated in the

Second Catilinarian Conspiracy The Catilinarian conspiracy (sometimes Second Catilinarian conspiracy) was an attempted coup d'état by Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) to overthrow the Roman consuls of 63 BC – Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Antonius Hybrida – a ...

of 63 BC. He had become involved in the civil war while in the employ of

Bocchus II Bocchus II was a king of Mauretania in the 1st century BC. He was the son of Mastanesosus, who died in 49 BC, upon which Bocchus inherited the throne. Biography He was surely the son of Mastanesosus, king of Mauretania. His father was identifi ...

of eastern

Mauretania Mauretania (; ) is the Latin name for a region in the ancient Maghreb. It stretched from central present-day Algeria westwards to the Atlantic, covering northern present-day Morocco, and southward to the Atlas Mountains. Its native inhabitants, ...

together they had organised an invasion into the lands of Massinissa II and quickly captured his kingdom. This kingdom was an ally of

Juba I Juba I of Numidia ( lat, IVBA, xpu, ywbʿy; –46BC) was a king of Numidia (reigned 60–46 BC). He was the son and successor to Hiempsal II. Biography In 81 BC Hiempsal had been driven from his throne; soon afterwards, Pompey was sent to Af ...

Numidia Numidia ( Berber: ''Inumiden''; 202–40 BC) was the ancient kingdom of the Numidians located in northwest Africa, initially comprising the territory that now makes up modern-day Algeria, but later expanding across what is today known as Tunis ...

who was in turn an ally of Scipio. At this time Juba was moving to rendezvous with Scipio and confront Caesar at

but upon learning that Sittius' was moving against Massinissa's capital of

Cirta Cirta, also known by various other names in antiquity, was the ancient Berber and Roman settlement which later became Constantine, Algeria. Cirta was the capital city of the Berber kingdom of Numidia; its strategically important port city w ...

the king was compelled to return and defend his own kingdom thus allowing Caesar more time to prepare and lending to his upcoming victory. Sittius continued to win victories over Juba, and his subordinate Saburra after the king returned east, independently of Bocchus.''De Bello Africo'', 93 Despite playing such a key role in the civil war by ensuring that Scipio and Juba were unable to concentrate their forces at the opportune moment, the degree of coordination that existed between Sittius and Caesar is unclear.

Cassius Dio Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...

states that, in at least the early stages of his campaign, Sittius owed no loyalty to Caesar and that the latter had no knowledge of the former. Following Caesar's victory at the Battle of Thapsus, Sittius managed to capture the retreating Optimate commanders Lucius Afranius and Faustus Cornelius Sulla after thoroughly defeating their 1000 strong cavalry force.''De Bello Africo'', 95 These men were then either sent along to Caesar where they were either promptly executed at the demands of his men or murdered in Sittius' captivity by mutinous men. Many of the Optimate commanders who survived the Battle of Thapsus, including Caesar's one time lieutenant

Titus Labienus Titus Labienus (c. 10017 March 45 BC) was a high-ranking military officer in the late Roman Republic. He served as tribune of the Plebs in 63 BC. Although mostly remembered as one of Julius Caesar's best lieutenants in Gaul, mentioned freq ...

, managed to successfully flee from the scene and headed towards

Hispania Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania ...

to regroup. Scipio boarded a ship with a number of prominent men and attempted to do the same. Among those present with Scipio as he set sail were the senators

Lucius Manlius Torquatus Lucius Manlius Torquatus was a consul of the Roman Republic in 65 BC, elected after the condemnation of Publius Cornelius Sulla and Publius Autronius Paetus. Biography Torquatus belonged to the patrician gens Manlii, one of the oldest Roman ho ...

, Publius Damasippus and Plaetorius Rustianus.''De Bello Africo'', 96

Battle

Scipio's fleet was sailing west when a strong headwind forced them to attempt to make port at the city of

on the north African coast. It was here that Sittius' now large mercenary fleet chanced upon them and chose to attack. The larger and more numerous ships under the command of Sittius swiftly surrounded their much smaller counterparts and in the resulting battle all of the senators perished. Upon being confronted by Sittius' men, and the outcome of the battle becoming clear, Scipio took his own life with his sword so as to avoid falling into enemy hands. His final words are said to have been ''Imperator se bene habet'' ("Your general is just fine").

Aftermath

The loss of so many notable senatorial supporters was a further blow to the Optimate cause following the devastating defeat at Thapsus.

Cato the Younger Marcus Porcius Cato "Uticensis" ("of Utica"; ; 95 BC – April 46 BC), also known as Cato the Younger ( la, Cato Minor), was an influential conservative Roman senator during the late Republic. His conservative principles were focused on the pr ...

, another very prominent leader of the faction, had also committed suicide at Utica around this time. The remaining Optimate forces regrouped in Hispania under the leadership of

Publius Attius Varus Publius Attius Varus (died 17 March 45 BC) was the Roman governor of Africa during the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. He declared war against Caesar, and initially fought Gaius Scribonius Curio, who was sent against him in 49 BC. P ...

, Gnaeus Pompeius ("Pompey the Younger") and

Sextus Pompeius Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius ( 67 – 35 BC), also known in English as Sextus Pompey, was a Roman military leader who, throughout his life, upheld the cause of his father, Pompey the Great, against Julius Caesar and his supporters during the las ...

where they would face eventual defeat to Caesar at the

Battle of Munda The Battle of Munda (17 March 45 BC), in southern Hispania Ulterior, was the final battle of Caesar's civil war against the leaders of the Optimates. With the military victory at Munda and the deaths of Titus Labienus and Gnaeus Pompeius (elde ...

effectively bringing an end to the civil war. Scipio's dignity in death was greatly admired by many including the

Stoic Stoic may refer to: * An adherent of Stoicism; one whose moral quality is associated with that school of philosophy *STOIC, a programming language * ''Stoic'' (film), a 2009 film by Uwe Boll * ''Stoic'' (mixtape), a 2012 mixtape by rapper T-Pain *' ...

philosopher

Seneca the Younger Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (; 65 AD), usually known mononymously as Seneca, was a Stoic philosopher of Ancient Rome, a statesman, dramatist, and, in one work, satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature. Seneca was born in ...

who likened Scipio's decision to "conquer death" to the conquests of his famous ancestor

Scipio Africanus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , ; 236/235–183 BC) was a Roman general and statesman, most notable as one of the main architects of Rome's victory against Carthage in the Second Punic War. Often regarded as one of the best military com ...

against

Carthage Carthage was the capital city of Ancient Carthage, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classi ...

in the

Punic Wars The Punic Wars were a series of wars between 264 and 146BC fought between Roman Republic, Rome and Ancient Carthage, Carthage. Three conflicts between these states took place on both land and sea across the western Mediterranean region and i ...

. The lands in eastern

conquered by Sittius were reorganised by Caesar into the new province of

Africa Nova Numidia was a Roman province on the North African coast, comprising roughly the territory of north-east Algeria. History The people of the area were first identified as Numidians by Polybius around the 2nd century BC, although they were often ...

. For his part in the civil war, Sittius was rewarded by Caesar with control of a semi-autonomous region within the new province called the Confederatio Cirtense as part of his veteran resettlement programme and the first

romanisation Romanization or romanisation, in linguistics, is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and ...

efforts in Africa. Sittius succeeded in settling the area with 5000

legionaries The Roman legionary (in Latin ''legionarius'', plural ''legionarii'') was a professional heavy infantryman of the Roman army after the Marian reforms. These soldiers would conquer and defend the territories of ancient Rome during the late Republi ...

primarily from

Campania Campania (, also , , , ) is an administrative Regions of Italy, region of Italy; most of it is in the south-western portion of the Italian peninsula (with the Tyrrhenian Sea to its west), but it also includes the small Phlegraean Islands and the i ...

who were split between the cities of

Milevum Milevum (in Latin even "Milev" or "Mireon"; ''Μιραίον'' in Ancient Greek) was a Roman– Berber city in the Roman province of Numidia. It was located in present-day Mila in eastern Algeria. History In Ptolemy's "Geography" (vol. IV, ...

, Chullu and Rusicade. Within 20 years over 20,000 people had migrated from

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...

and colonised the area. The settlement was later referred to as Cirta Sittianorum and the legionaries who controlled the region came to be known as "Sittians" (''Sittiani'').''Pliny'', Natural History, V, 22

References

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46 BC