The battles of Madhar and Harura (Arabic transliteration: ''Yawm Madhār'' and ''Yawm Ḥarūrāʾ'') successively took place in the latter half of 686 in the environs of
Basra
Basra ( ar, ٱلْبَصْرَة, al-Baṣrah) is an Iraqi city located on the Shatt al-Arab. It had an estimated population of 1.4 million in 2018. Basra is also Iraq's main port, although it does not have deep water access, which is hand ...
and
Kufa
Kufa ( ar, الْكُوفَة ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Currently, Kufa and Najaf ...
, respectively, both in southern
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
. The battles were fought between the forces of
Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr
Muṣʿab ibn al-Zubayr ( ar, مصعب بن الزبير; died October 691) was the governor of Basra in 686–691 for his brother, the Mecca-based counter-caliph Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, during the Second Fitna. Mus'ab was a son of Zubayr ibn a ...
, the governor of Basra on behalf of his brother Caliph
Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr
Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam ( ar, عبد الله ابن الزبير ابن العوام, ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām; May 624 CE – October/November 692), was the leader of a caliphate based in Mecca that rivaled the ...
(), and
Mukhtar al-Thaqafi
Al-Mukhtar ibn Abi Ubayd al-Thaqafi ( ar, المختار بن أبي عبيد الثقفي, '; – 3 April 687) was a pro-Alid revolutionary based in Kufa, who led a rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate in 685 and ruled over most of Iraq f ...
, the pro-
Alid
The Alids are those who claim descent from the '' rāshidūn'' caliph and Imam ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (656–661)—cousin, son-in-law, and companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad—through all his wives. The main branches are the (inc ...
ruler of Kufa. They ended with the latter's decisive defeat and the slaying of most of his commanders. In the immediate aftermath, Mus'ab besieged and killed Mukhtar in Kufa, sanctioned the killing of thousands of his sympathizers in the city, and annexed Kufa and its dependencies, i.e. the
Sawad
Sawad was the name used in early Islamic times (7th–12th centuries) for southern Iraq. It means "black land" or "arable land" and refers to the stark contrast between the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Desert. Under the Umayyad a ...
(Lower Mesopotamia) and
Jibal
Jibāl ( ar, جبال), also al-Jabal ( ar, الجبل), was the name given by the Arabs to a region and province located in western Iran, under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates.
Its name means "the Mountains", being the plural of ''jabal'' (" ...
(northwestern Iran).
Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar
Ibrahim ibn Malik al-Ashtar ibn al-Harith al-Nakha'i (; died October 691), better known as Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar ( ar, إبراهيم بن الأشتر, Ibrāhīm ibn al-Ashtar) was an Arab commander who fought in the service of Caliph Ali (r. 65 ...
, Mukhtar's governor over
Mosul
Mosul ( ar, الموصل, al-Mawṣil, ku, مووسڵ, translit=Mûsil, Turkish: ''Musul'', syr, ܡܘܨܠ, Māwṣil) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. The city is considered the second large ...
and its dependencies, i.e. the
Jazira
Jazira or Al-Jazira ( 'island'), or variants, may refer to:
Business
*Jazeera Airways, an airlines company based in Kuwait
Locations
* Al-Jazira, a traditional region known today as Upper Mesopotamia or the smaller region of Cizre
* Al-Jazira (c ...
(Upper Mesopotamia),
Adharbayjan, and
Arminiya
Arminiya, also known as the Ostikanate of Arminiya ( hy, Արմինիա ոստիկանություն, ''Arminia vostikanut'yun'') or the Emirate of Armenia ( ar, إمارة أرمينيا, ''imārat Arminiya''), was a political and geographic de ...
, afterward defected to Mus'ab. In effect, all of Iraq came under Zubayrid authority as a result of Mus'ab's victory.
Location
Madhar was a town on the military route between
Kufa
Kufa ( ar, الْكُوفَة ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Currently, Kufa and Najaf ...
and
Basra
Basra ( ar, ٱلْبَصْرَة, al-Baṣrah) is an Iraqi city located on the Shatt al-Arab. It had an estimated population of 1.4 million in 2018. Basra is also Iraq's main port, although it does not have deep water access, which is hand ...
, situated along the bank of a tributary of the
Tigris
The Tigris () is the easternmost of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, and empties into the ...
. It lay southeast of Kufa and north of Basra. Harura was a village or district near Kufa. Based on the description of the 13th-century geographer
Yaqut al-Hamawi
Yāqūt Shihāb al-Dīn ibn-ʿAbdullāh al-Rūmī al-Ḥamawī (1179–1229) ( ar, ياقوت الحموي الرومي) was a Muslim scholar of Byzantine Greek ancestry active during the late Abbasid period (12th-13th centuries). He is known fo ...
, historian Michael Fishbein locates it roughly south of Kufa. According to the medieval sources, during the pre-Islamic period and through the 7th century, Harura was located either on the banks of the
Euphrates
The Euphrates () is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ( ''the land between the rivers'') ...
or one of its canals. By the 9th century, it is described as being in the desert. Historian
Laura Veccia Vaglieri
Laura Veccia Vaglieri (1893 – 1989) was an Italian orientalist.
A scholar and one of the pioneers of Arabic and Islamic studies in Italy, Veccia Vaglieri served as professor at the Università degli Studi di Napoli "L'Orientale" and was the a ...
concludes that this meant "the hydrographic system of the region had thus probably undergone a transformation".
Background
During the
Second Fitna
The Second Fitna was a period of general political and military disorder and civil war in the Islamic community during the early Umayyad Caliphate., meaning trial or temptation) occurs in the Qur'an in the sense of test of faith of the believer ...
(680–692), the principal opposition to the
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
-centered
Umayyad Caliphate
The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by th ...
emanated from the
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
-based caliph
Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr
Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam ( ar, عبد الله ابن الزبير ابن العوام, ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām; May 624 CE – October/November 692), was the leader of a caliphate based in Mecca that rivaled the ...
. The latter's younger brother
Mus'ab governed Basra, one of Iraq's main
garrison towns, on his behalf. In 685, the pro-
Alid
The Alids are those who claim descent from the '' rāshidūn'' caliph and Imam ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (656–661)—cousin, son-in-law, and companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad—through all his wives. The main branches are the (inc ...
revolutionary
Mukhtar al-Thaqafi
Al-Mukhtar ibn Abi Ubayd al-Thaqafi ( ar, المختار بن أبي عبيد الثقفي, '; – 3 April 687) was a pro-Alid revolutionary based in Kufa, who led a rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate in 685 and ruled over most of Iraq f ...
, backed by his Arab and ''
mawālī
Mawlā ( ar, مَوْلَى, plural ''mawālī'' ()), is a polysemous Arabic word, whose meaning varied in different periods and contexts.A.J. Wensinck, Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Mawlā", vol. 6, p. 874.
Before the Islamic prophet ...
'' (local non-Arab converts) sympathizers, expelled the Zubayrid governor of Kufa, Iraq's other major garrison town, and became master of much of Iraq. Zubayrid rule was consequently confined to
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate. ...
and Basra.
The ''mawālī'' in Mukhtar's revolt were non-Arabs of
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
and
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
origin. They had been prisoners of war captured during the
early Muslim conquests
The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( ar, الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, ), also referred to as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet. He estab ...
, who later converted to Islam and were freed, or peasants and craftsmen. As per Arab customs of the time, non-Arab converts were incorporated as members of Arab tribes, but with the lower status of a client (''mawlā''). In practice, they were akin to slaves of the tribal nobility (''ashrāf''). Mukhtar's favorable policies towards the ''mawālī'', which included awarding them freedom as well as equal social and military status with the Arabs, sparked an armed revolt of Kufa's Arab nobility. The revolt was crushed and the ''mawālī'' hunted down their former masters. Some ten thousand Arabs fled to Basra, while their houses in Kufa were destroyed. Most prominent among the refugees,
Shabath ibn Rib'i and
Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath
Abū al-Qāsim Muḥammad ibn al-Ash'ath ibn Qays al-Kindī (; died 686) was the chieftain of the Kinda tribe in Kufa, succeeding his father al-Ash'ath ibn Qays. He served as governor of Tabaristan under the Umayyad viceroy of Iraq, Ubayd Allah ibn ...
, requested assistance from Mus'ab and persuaded him to confront Mukhtar. Mus'ab summoned his most experienced commander,
Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra
Abū Saʿīd al-Muhallab ibn Abī Ṣufra al-Azdī ( ar, أَبْو سَعِيْد ٱلْمُهَلَّب ابْن أَبِي صُفْرَة ٱلْأَزْدِي; 702) was an Arab general from the Azd tribe who fought in the service of the Ra ...
, who had been engaged in battles against the
Kharijites
The Kharijites (, singular ), also called al-Shurat (), were an Islamic sect which emerged during the First Fitna (656–661). The first Kharijites were supporters of Ali who rebelled against his acceptance of arbitration talks to settle the ...
, and launched the offensive against Kufa. At the time, relations were strained between Mukhtar and his strong-man
Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar
Ibrahim ibn Malik al-Ashtar ibn al-Harith al-Nakha'i (; died October 691), better known as Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar ( ar, إبراهيم بن الأشتر, Ibrāhīm ibn al-Ashtar) was an Arab commander who fought in the service of Caliph Ali (r. 65 ...
, who was posted in
Mosul
Mosul ( ar, الموصل, al-Mawṣil, ku, مووسڵ, translit=Mûsil, Turkish: ''Musul'', syr, ܡܘܨܠ, Māwṣil) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. The city is considered the second large ...
in the eastern
Jazira
Jazira or Al-Jazira ( 'island'), or variants, may refer to:
Business
*Jazeera Airways, an airlines company based in Kuwait
Locations
* Al-Jazira, a traditional region known today as Upper Mesopotamia or the smaller region of Cizre
* Al-Jazira (c ...
(Upper Mesopotamia). Mus'ab may have sought to take advantage of their estrangement.
Battle of Madhar
Mus'ab dispatched his agents to Kufa to recruit supporters and weaken Mukhtar in his stronghold. Mus'ab's army was divided into the fifths of Basra, each representing an Arab tribal faction. They were the
Banu Bakr
The Banu Bakr bin Wa'il ( ar, بنو بكر بن وائل '), or simply Banu Bakr, were an Arabian tribe belonging to the large Rabi'ah branch of Adnanite tribes, which also included Abd al-Qays, Anazzah, Taghlib. The tribe is reputed to have en ...
led by
Malik ibn Misma al-Bakri, the
Abd al-Qays
The Abd al-Qays ( ar, عبد القيس) was an ancient Arabian tribe from the Rabi'a branch of the North Arabian tribes.
History Origins
The name of the tribe means 'servant of the odQays'. It belonged to the tribal groups originally resident ...
led by
Malik ibn al-Mundhir, the
Ahl al-Jibal led by
Qays ibn al-Haytham al-Sulami, the
Azd
The Azd ( ar, أَزْد), or ''Al-Azd'' ( ar, ٱلْأَزْد), are a tribe of Sabaean Arabs.
In ancient times, the Sabaeans inhabited Ma'rib, capital city of the Kingdom of Saba' in modern-day Yemen. Their lands were irrigated by the Ma ...
led by
Ziyad ibn Amr al-Ataki, and the
Banu Tamim
Banū Tamīm ( ar, بَنُو تَمِيم) is an Arab tribe that originated in Najd in the Arabian Peninsula. It is mainly present in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Iraq, Jordan, Algeria, and has a strong presence in Morocco, Palestine, Tunisia ...
led by
al-Ahnaf ibn Qays
Abu Bahr Al-Ahnaf ibn Qays () was a Muslim commander who lived during the time of Muhammad. He hailed from the Arab tribe of Banu Tamim and was born of two noble parents. His father named him ad-Dhahhak, but everybody called him ''al-Ahnaf'' (the ...
. In command of the left wing was Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra, while the right wing was commanded by
Umar ibn Ubaydallah ibn Ma'mar al-Taymi Umar ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar al-Taymi (died 702 or 703) was a commander of the Zubayrid and Umayyad caliphates in their wars with the Kharijites and the chief of the Banu Taym clan of the Quraysh in the late 7th century.
Early life
Umar was the ...
. His infantry was led by
Abbad ibn al-Husayn al-Habati. In addition to the Basran troops, the Kufan refugees were also present in his army.
Upon learning of Mus'ab's advances, Mukhtar rallied the Kufans with promises of victory at Madhar. His army was commanded by
Ahmar ibn Shumayt. Some of Mukhtar's troops, which were with Ibn al-Ashtar in Mosul, returned to Mukhtar after Ibn al-Ashtar's indifference to Mukhtar's letters. Ibn Shumayt's right wing was led by
Abd Allah ibn Kamil al-Shakiri,
Abd Allah ibn Wahab al-Jushami commanded his left wing,
Kathir ibn Ismail al-Kindi led the infantry, while a certain Abd al-Saluli was in charge of the cavalry. The ''mawālī'' faction was led by the chief of Mukhtar's
personal guard,
Abu Amra Kaysan
Abū ʿAmra Kaysān was a prominent Persian '' mawlā'' (pl. ''mawālī''; non-Arab convert to Islam in early caliphate history) during the Second Muslim Civil War.
Kaysan converted to Islam after the Muslim conquest of Persia and became a ''mawl ...
. Ibn Shumayt advanced towards Basra and camped at Madhar, where Mus'ab arrived shortly afterward. Though the ''mawālī'' were mounted, the commander of Ibn Shumayt's left wing, Abd Allah ibn Wahab, an Arab who likely disdained the ''mawālī'', suggested that they were weak, prone to flight if attacked, and therefore should be made to fight on foot. Ibn Shumayt accepted the advice and ordered the ''mawālī'' to dismount.
Before the battle, both sides summoned each other to surrender and acknowledge the authority of their respective leaders—Ibn al-Zubayr and Mukhtar. Abbad's cavalry assault was repulsed. Then, Muhallab attacked and defeated the Kufans' right flank led by Ibn Kamil al-Shakiri. The Basrans' right wing attacked and defeated the Kufans' left wing. Shortly afterward, the commander of the Kufan forces Ahmar ibn Shumayt was overwhelmed and slain. Muhallab ordered his cavalry to charge on the Kufan foot soldiers and the latter fled. Mus'ab then sent Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath with his cavalry to decimate the fleeing Kufans and told him: "Take your revenge
n the ''mawālī''" Many of the Kufan horsemen escaped, while most of the foot soldiers were killed or captured. All the prisoners were put to death by the Kufan refugees in Mus'ab's army. Despite Ibn Wahab's suspicions, the ''mawālī'' put up serious resistance and large numbers of them died. Their leader Abu Amra Kaysan was likely killed as the sources do not mention him after the battle. The survivors of Mukhtar's army retreated to Kufa and informed Mukhtar of the defeat. The news undermined Mukhtar's prestige. Regarding his promise of victory, his ''mawālī'' remarked: "This time he told lies". Mukhtar himself remarked: "By God the slaves
'mawālī''have been killed on an unprecedented scale". The precise date of the battle is not given in the historical accounts, but according to modern historians, it would have been fought in the middle of 686.
Battle of Harura
Mus'ab pursued the fleeing Kufans. In order to quickly reach Kufa, he sent his infantry and provisions by boats, while his cavalry moved by land. On learning this, Mukhtar fortified the palace, stocked provisions, and placed Kufa under the command of a certain
Abd Allah ibn Shaddad. Then he went to al-Saylahin, a place between
al-Hirah
Al-Hirah ( ar, الحيرة, translit=al-Ḥīra Middle Persian: ''Hērt'' ) was an ancient city in Mesopotamia located south of what is now Kufa in south-central Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of I ...
and
al-Qadisiyya, and dammed the Euphrates so that its waters were redirected to fill the canals leading to al-Hirah and al-Qadisiyya, thereby leaving Mus'ab's river boats stuck in mud; these troops disembarked and marched on foot, while Mus'ab and his horsemen destroyed the dam and continued toward Kufa. Mukhtar relocated his camp to Harura to block Mus'ab's entry into Kufa.
Mus'ab soon arrived at Harura. In charge of the Kufan troops in his army was Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath. Muhallab commanded the right wing and the left wing was commanded by Umar ibn Ubaydallah ibn Ma'mar al-Taymi. The infantry were led by
Muqatil ibn Misma al-Bakri. Mukhtar installed
Abd Allah ibn Qurad al-Khath'ami at the head of his ''
shurṭa
''Shurṭa'' ( ar, شرطة) is the common Arabic term for police, although its precise meaning is that of a "picked" or elite force. Bodies termed ''shurṭa'' were established in the early days of the Caliphate, perhaps as early as the caliphate ...
'' (security retinue). The right and left wings of his forces were commanded by
Sulaym ibn Yazid al-Kindi and
Sa'id ibn Munqidh al-Hamdani, respectively, while his cavalry and infantry were led by
Umar ibn Abdallah al-Nahdi and
Malik ibn Amr al-Nahdi, the latter a veteran of the
Battle of Siffin
The Battle of Siffin was fought in 657 CE (37 AH) between Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth of the Rashidun Caliphs and the first Shia Imam, and Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the rebellious governor of Syria. The battle is named after its location S ...
in 657.
When the armies neared each other, Mukhtar sent detachments to confront each of the Basran fifths and the pro-Zubayrid Kufans, while he remained stationary among his troops. Mukhtar's forces made initial gains against the Basran Bakr and Abd al-Qays fifths and pressed forward. They then drove back the Ahl al-Jibal fifth and approached Mus'ab who entrenched himself at an elevated position with his men and shot arrows against Mukhtar's troops. Upon Mus'ab's urging, al-Muhallab, who had remained stationary with the Azd and Tamim fifths, led an assault against Mukhtar's troops and landed them a severe blow, though heavy fighting continued until nightfall. Among the slain were Umar ibn Abd Allah, Malik ibn Amr, Sa'id ibn Munqidh and 70 of his horsemen, Salim ibn Yazid and 90 of his horsemen, and Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath and most of his horsemen. Mukhtar fought with his ''shurṭa'', at least three of whom were slain, along the al-Shabath road at the southern entrance of Kufa, until he was forced to withdraw with his surviving bodyguards to his palace in Kufa. In the summation of historian
Gerald R. Hawting
Gerald R. Hawting (born 1944) is a British historian and Islamicist.
Life
Hawting's teachers were Bernard Lewis and John Wansbrough. He received his Ph.D. in 1978. He is Emeritus Professor for the History of the Near and Middle East at the Sc ...
, the "advantage gained" by the Zubayrids at Madhar "was pressed home and al-Mukhtar's forces were subsequently virtually destroyed at Harura".
Aftermath
Mus'ab's forces proceeded to enter Kufa and besiege Mukhtar in his palace. The latter's defenders initially put up meager resistance. The siege lasted for four months. At one point during the siege, Mukhtar and 200 defenders made a sortie and dispersed 100 attackers. They returned and the siege was tightened until Mukhtar exited with some nineteen of his men and made a last stand, in which he was slain. This occurred on 3 April 687.
Pressed by the vengeful Kufan ''ashrāf'' in his camp, including Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath's son
Abd al-Rahman
Abd al-Rahman ( ar, عبد الرحمن, translit=ʿAbd al-Raḥmān or occasionally ; DMG ''ʿAbd ar-Raḥman''; also Abdul Rahman) is a male Arabic Muslim given name, and in modern usage, surname. It is built from the Arabic words '' Abd'', '' ...
, Mus'ab sanctioned wide-scale killings of Mukhtar's supporters in the city. According to the orientalist
Henri Lammens
Henri Lammens (1 Jul 1862 – 23 Apr 1937) was a Belgian Orientalist historian and Jesuit, who wrote (in French) on the early history of Islam.
Education and career as a Jesuit
Born in Ghent, Belgium of Catholic Flemish stock, Henri Lammens joi ...
, Mus'ab "executed a considerable number of his
ukhtar'ssupporters, which earned him as many enemies as his victims had relatives". According to an account by
Abu Mikhnaf
Lut ibn Yahya ibn Sa'id ibn Mikhnaf al-Azdi ( ar, لوط ابن يحيٰ ابن سعيد ابن مِخنَف الأزدي, Lūṭ ibn Yaḥyā ibn Saʿīd ibn Mikhnaf al-Azdī), more commonly known by his '' kunya'' (epithet) Abu Mikhnaf ( ar, أ ...
,
Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab
ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb ( ar, عبد الله بن عمر ابن الخطاب; 610693) was a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a son of the second Caliph Umar. He was a prominent authority in ''hadith'' and law. H ...
accused Mus'ab of massacring 7,000 Kufans, while the account of
al-Waqidi
Abu `Abdullah Muhammad Ibn ‘Omar Ibn Waqid al-Aslami (Arabic ) (c. 130 – 207 AH; c. 747 – 823 AD) was a historian commonly referred to as al-Waqidi (Arabic: ). His surname is derived from his grandfather's name Waqid and thus he became fa ...
holds that of the partisans of Mukhtar in the palace who surrendered, Mus'ab executed 700 Arabs and all the Persians and afterward massacred 6,000 Kufan sympathizers. With the elimination of Mukhtar and the subsequent defection of Ibn al-Ashtar to the Zubayrids, Mus'ab gained full control of Iraq and assigned tax collectors to the
Sawad
Sawad was the name used in early Islamic times (7th–12th centuries) for southern Iraq. It means "black land" or "arable land" and refers to the stark contrast between the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Desert. Under the Umayyad a ...
and
Jibal
Jibāl ( ar, جبال), also al-Jabal ( ar, الجبل), was the name given by the Arabs to a region and province located in western Iran, under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates.
Its name means "the Mountains", being the plural of ''jabal'' (" ...
, both dependent districts of Kufa.
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
*
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*
*
*
* {{The Arab Kingdom and its Fall
686
Madhar and Harura
Madhar and Harura
History of Kufa
Medieval Iraq
Second Fitna
History of Basra