The Battle of Baekgang or Battle of Baekgang-gu, also known as Battle of Hakusukinoe ( ja, 白村江の戦い, Hakusuki-no-e no Tatakai / Hakusonkō no Tatakai) in
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
, as Battle of Baijiangkou ( zh, c=白江口之战, p=Bāijiāngkǒu Zhīzhàn, t=白江口之戰) in
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
, was a battle between
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
restoration forces and their ally,
Yamato Japan, against the allied forces of
Silla
Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms of K ...
and
Tang China
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
. The battle took place in the
Baengma River
The Geumgang River is located in South Korea. It is a major river that originates in Jangsu-eup, North Jeolla Province. It flows northward through North Jeolla and North Chungcheong Provinces and then changes direction in the vicinity of Greater ...
() or Baek River (), which is the lower reach of the
Geum River
The Geumgang River is located in South Korea. It is a major river that originates in Jangsu-eup, North Jeolla Province. It flows northward through North Jeolla and North Chungcheong Provinces and then changes direction in the vicinity of Greater ...
in
Jeollabuk-do
North Jeolla Province (; ''Jeollabuk-do''), also known as Jeonbuk, is a province of South Korea. North Jeolla has a population of 1,869,711 (2015) and has a geographic area of 8,067 km2 (3,115 sq mi) located in the Honam region in the southwest ...
province, Korea. The Silla-Tang forces won a decisive victory, compelling Yamato Japan to withdraw completely from Korean affairs and crushing the Baekje restoration movement.
Background
In the first half of the first millennium CE, the
Korean Peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
was divided into three kingdoms –
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
,
Silla
Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms of K ...
, and
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
. Despite sharing similar cultures and using mutually-intelligible languages (while the language of Silla is described in modern-day scholarship as
Old Korean
Old Korean () is the first historically documented stage of the Korean language, typified by the language of the Unified Silla period (668–935).
The boundaries of Old Korean periodization remain in dispute. Some linguists classify the sparsely ...
, the languages of Baekje and Goguryeo are poorly-attested; although contemporary records suggest that the languages of the three kingdoms were mutually-intelligible, some research suggests that, for instance, Baekje may have used two languages – one related to Silla's Old Korean and another linked to what is called
Peninsular Japonic
The Peninsular Japonic languages are now-extinct Japonic languages that most linguists believe, based on traces in ancient texts, were formerly spoken in the central and southern parts of the Korean Peninsula.
The most-cited evidence comes from ...
; tradition and some contemporary sources indicate that Baekje and Goguryeo used the same language, as Baekje is said by these sources to have been founded by migrants from Goguryeo), these three kingdoms were rivals, and had engaged each other in wars for dominion over the peninsula for several centuries. In addition to the inter-Korean rivalry, Goguryeo had been engaged in frequent warfare with the Chinese
Sui and Tang dynasties. While the three Korean kingdoms were not always military enemies, their alliances frequently shifted; a kingdom would become allies with one of the other two, only to later turn against that kingdom and (sometimes) become allies with the other kingdom against whom it had fought earlier. For example, Silla and Baekje would be allied against Goguryeo (as they were from the late 420s to the early 550s), and later Silla (or Baekje) would betray the other (as happened in 553, when Silla wrested control of the entire
Han River basin from Baekje
). By 660, this state of affairs had been going on for some 3–4 centuries.
Silla had an ongoing alliance with the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
dating roughly to the Tang rise to power in the 620s. The Tang made a series of assaults against Goguryeo, but was not conquer it yet. All the Tang invasions had been from the north attacking south. Tang decided that the best strategy might be to attack Goguryeo from both the northern front and a southern front simultaneously with their ally Silla. However, in order to do so, they (Tang and Silla) had to eliminate Baekje (at the time allied to Goguryeo) and secure a base of operations in southern Korea for a second front. The military campaign against Baekje began in 660.
Together, Silla and Tang invaded Baekje and effectively eliminated it when they captured the capital of Sabi, Baekje's last king
Uija, and most of the royal family. Soon afterwards, however, the Baekje people revolted and threw off Silla and Tang rule in large areas of northern Baekje. The Baekje general
Boksin
Gwisil Boksin (鬼室福信, ? – 663) was a military general of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He is remembered primarily as a leader of the Baekje Revival Movement to restore the kingdom after the capital fell in 660 to the Sill ...
attempted to take back the 40 lost counties still under Silla-Tang control. He also recalled
Prince Buyeo Pung from Japan (a number of members of the Baekje royal family resided in Japan as guests of the Japanese state), sent 100 Tang prisoners to the Yamato court, and requested military aid. General Boksin proclaimed Prince Buyeo Pung as the new king of Baekje. Although the restoration forces had some initial success against Tang and Silla troops, by 662, they were in serious trouble, and their area of control was confined to the fortress of Churyu and its immediate vicinity. As their situation went from bad to worse, Buyeo Pung had Boksin killed for fear of insurrection.
Baekje and Yamato Japan had been long-standing allies by this time, and their royal houses were related. The fall of Baekje in 660 came as a terrible shock to the Yamato royal court.
Empress Saimei
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother (empr ...
said:
"We learn that in ancient times there have been cases of troops being asked for and assistance requested: to render help in emergencies, and to restore that which has been interrupted, is a manifestation of ordinary principles of right. The Land of Baekje, in its extremity, has come to us and placed itself in our hands. Our resolution in this matter is unshakable. We will give separate orders to our generals to advance at the same time by a hundred routes."
Crown Prince Naka no Ōe, later to become
Emperor Tenji
, also known as Emperor Tenchi, was the 38th emperor of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'')天智天皇 (38)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession.Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). ''The Imperial House of Japan'', p. 5 ...
, and Empress Saimei decided to dispatch an expeditionary force led by
Abe no Hirafu
was a Japanese military strategist and commander of the Asuka period.
Some sources say he lived from c.575-664
Biography
Events in his life are accounted in the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki, both written several decades after his death. His father' ...
(阿倍比羅夫) to help the besieged Baekje restoration forces. The troops were largely local strongmen (''kuni no miyatsuko'') drawn from mostly western Honshū, Shikoku, and especially Kyūshū, although some warriors were also from Kantō and northeastern Japan.
Empress Saimei moved the capital to the Asakura temporary palace near the shipyards in northern
Kyūshū
is the third-largest island of Japan's five main islands and the most southerly of the four largest islands ( i.e. excluding Okinawa). In the past, it has been known as , and . The historical regional name referred to Kyushu and its surround ...
to personally oversee the military campaign. As the main fleet set sail, the ''
Man'yōshū
The is the oldest extant collection of Japanese (poetry in Classical Japanese), compiled sometime after AD 759 during the Nara period. The anthology is one of the most revered of Japan's poetic compilations. The compiler, or the last in ...
'' records Empress Saimei composing a
waka
Waka may refer to:
Culture and language
* Waka (canoe), a Polynesian word for canoe; especially, canoes of the Māori of New Zealand
** Waka ama, a Polynesian outrigger canoe
** Waka hourua, a Polynesian ocean-going canoe
** Waka taua, a Māori w ...
:
:熟田津に 船乗りせむと 月待てば 潮もかなひぬ 今は漕ぎ出でな
:''Nikita tsu ni funanori semu to tsuki mateba, shio mo kanahinu: ima ha kogiide na.''
:I was going to wait for the moon to rise before embarking from Nikita bay, but the tide is up: go, row out now!
The Empress died in
Tsukushi Tsukushi may refer to:
Places
*Tsukushi Province, old Japanese province, subsequently divided into
**Chikuzen Province, old Japanese province, part of Fukuoka Prefecture without south and east Fukuoka
**Chikugo Province, old Japanese province, th ...
shortly after the last waves of Yamato troops departed for Korea. The Crown Prince (Tenji) carried her remains back to Asuka. Tenji, dressed in white mourning clothes, set up his residence in the Nagatsu temporary palace in Kyūshū, and continued to oversee the expeditionary operation.
Around August 661, 5,000 soldiers, 170 ships, and the general Abe no Hirafu all arrived in territory controlled by the Baekje restoration forces. Additional Japanese reinforcements, including 27,000 soldiers led by ''Kamitsukeno no Kimi Wakako'' (上毛野君稚子) and 10,000 soldiers led by ''Iohara no Kimi'' (廬原君), arrived in 662.
The battle
In 663, Baekje restoration forces and the Yamato navy convened in southern Baekje with the intent to relieve the capital of the Baekje restoration movement in Churyu, which was under siege by Silla forces. The Yamato navy was to ferry ground troops to Churyu via the Geum River and lift the siege. However, Tang also sent 7,000 soldiers and 170 ships to blockade Yamato reinforcements from relieving the capital.
On 4 October 663, the advance guard of the Japanese fleet tried to force their way, but Tang ships held firm, repelling the attacks and maintaining disciplined ranks.
On 5 October 663, the second day of the battle, the arrival of Japanese reinforcements made their forces several times larger than the Tang fleet arrayed against them. However, the river was narrow enough where the Tang fleet could cover their front and protect their flanks as long as they maintained their ordered battle lines. The Japanese were confident in their numerical superiority and attacked the Tang fleet at least three times throughout the entire day, but the Tang fought off each attack. Towards the end of the day, the Japanese became exhausted, and their fleet lost cohesion through their repeated attempts to break through Tang lines. Sensing the right moment, the Tang fleet moved reserves and counterattacked, breaking both the left and right flanks of the Japanese, enveloping their fleet and crowding in the ships so they could not move or retreat. Many Japanese fell into the water and drowned, and many of their ships were burned and sunk. The Yamato general
Echi no Takutsu
Echi no Takutsu (kanji 朴市田来津) died in 663 at the Battle of Baekgang.
The '' Nihon Shoki'' records that in 661, Naka-no-Oe (soon to be the Emperor Tenji) sent a group of generals to help the country Baekje in its fight against Tang China ...
was killed after striking down more than a dozen men in close quarters combat.
Japanese, Korean, and Chinese sources all point to heavy Japanese casualties. According to the ''
Nihon Shoki'', 400 Japanese ships were lost in the battle. Chinese sources claim 10,000 Japanese deaths.
Silla participation in the battle involved cavalry forces that defeated Baekje restoration ground troops which were supporting the Yamato navy on the banks of the river. It is not clear whether or not this took place before or during the time that the Japanese navy went to battle the Tang ships.
On 13 October 663, without Yamato troops to lift the siege, the fortress of Churyu surrendered to Silla and Tang forces. Buyeo Pung took a boat and fled with several followers to Goguryeo.
Aftermath
The Battle of Baekgang was Japan's greatest defeat in its premodern history. Japan's losses were enormous. Japan also lost a key ally on the East Asian continent in Baekje as well as a direct link to continental technology and culture. Due to the scale and severity of their defeat, the Yamato court feared an invasion from either or both Tang or Silla. In response, they built a
huge network of shore fortifications throughout the rest of the 600s. In 664, the Yamato court established frontier guards and signal fires in Tsushima Island, Iki Island, and northern Kyushu. Also, embankments storing water were built around the fortresses in Kyushu, which were collectively called the Water Fortress. In 665, the Yamato court sent Baekje generals and artisans to construct a rampart in
Nagato province
, often called , was a province of Japan. It was at the extreme western end of Honshū, in the area that is today Yamaguchi Prefecture. Nagato bordered on Iwami and Suō Provinces.
History
Although the ancient capital of the province was Shimono ...
, and two ramparts in Kyūshū. In 667, a rampart was constructed in the Yamato region, another one at Sanuki, and yet another at
Tsushima island
is an island of the Japanese archipelago situated in-between the Tsushima Strait and Korea Strait, approximately halfway between Kyushu and the Korean Peninsula. The main island of Tsushima, once a single island, was divided into two in 1671 b ...
. Unaware of the outbreak of the
Silla-Tang War (670–676), the Japanese would continue to build fortifications until 701, after finding out that Silla was no longer friendly with Tang.
With the fall of Baekje and Goguryeo, the only country in
East Asia
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
that was hostile to the
Tang
Tang or TANG most often refers to:
* Tang dynasty
* Tang (drink mix)
Tang or TANG may also refer to:
Chinese states and dynasties
* Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) b ...
at that time was Japan.
Emperor Tenchi
, also known as Emperor Tenchi, was the 38th emperor of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'')天智天皇 (38)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession.Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). ''The Imperial House of Japan'', p. 52 ...
quickly tried to normalize relations with the Tang, and in 669, dispatched the as an official envoy to Tang. At the same time, there were calls for the strengthening of national power in preparation for the invasion of the Tang Dynasty, and there was an urgent need for reform of the political system and the development of laws. Thereafter, the
imperial family
A royal family is the immediate family of kings/queens, emirs/emiras, sultans/ sultanas, or raja/rani and sometimes their extended family. The term imperial family appropriately describes the family of an emperor or empress, and the term pap ...
was at odds over the future direction of Japan. As a result, the
Jinshin War
The was a war of succession in Japan during the Asuka period of the Yamato state. It broke out in 672 following the death of Emperor Tenji. The name refers to the ''jinshin'' (壬申) or ninth year of the sixty-year Jikkan Jūnishi calendrical c ...
broke out. The war was won by
Emperor Temmu
was the 40th emperor of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 天武天皇 (40) retrieved 2013-8-22. according to the traditional order of succession. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). ''The Imperial House of Japan'', p. 53.
Tenmu's rei ...
, and from then on, the centralization of power in Japan progressed. Even after the death of
Emperor Temmu
was the 40th emperor of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 天武天皇 (40) retrieved 2013-8-22. according to the traditional order of succession. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). ''The Imperial House of Japan'', p. 53.
Tenmu's rei ...
,
Empress Jitō
was the 41st monarch of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 持統天皇 (41)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession.
Jitō's reign spanned the years from 686 through 697.Titsingh, Isaac. (1834).
In the history o ...
maintained his policy. In 701, under the
Taihō Code
The was an administrative reorganisation enacted in 703 in Japan, at the end of the Asuka period. It was historically one of the . It was compiled at the direction of Prince Osakabe, Fujiwara no Fuhito and Awata no Mahito. Nussbaum, Louis-Fr ...
, the name of Japan was changed from "
Wakoku
Wakoku is the name used by early imperial China and its neighbouring states to refer to the nation usually identified as Japan. There are various theories regarding the extent of power of the early kings of Japan. According to the Book of Sui and ...
(倭国)" to "
Nihon
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
(日本)".
For Baekje, the battle was the knockout blow that ended any hope of reviving the kingdom. Many Baekje people fled to either Goguryeo or Japan. Baekje royalty who fled to Japan were given the same ranks and titles in the Yamato court and non-royal Baekje refugees were given ''de facto'' citizenship status or special artisan status.
The last Baekje king,
Buyeo Pung
Buyeo Pung (扶餘豊, 623–668) was a prince of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was son of the last king, Uija of Baekje. When Baekje fell to the Silla–Tang alliance in 660, he was a hostage who mortgaged the alliance of Baekj ...
, abandoned the fighting Japanese and Baekje soldiers and fled to
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
with a few of his retainers.
The victory gave Tang control of all former Baekje lands in Korea and a secure base in southwest Korea to launch a two-pronged invasion of Goguryeo with their ally Silla. The Silla–Tang alliance first launched attacks on Goguryeo from the south in 661, and the Goguryeo capital at
Pyongyang
Pyongyang (, , ) is the capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is known as the "Capital of the Revolution". Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. According to the 2008 populatio ...
finally fell in 668. In the same year, Tang established the
Protectorate General to Pacify the East
The Protectorate-General to Pacify the East () was an administrative division of the Chinese Tang dynasty in Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. It was established after the Tang dynasty defeated Goguryeo and annexed its ter ...
to control the Korean Peninsula.
Retrospective issues
The battle introduces interesting questions regarding Japan's relations with the Korean states and their level of development at the time. For example, why did the Japanese fare so badly against the Tang army? According to several scholars, it is clear that, in the 7th century at least, the Chinese had better weapons and, more importantly, their troops and officers were better trained and disciplined. Despite years of reforms modeled after mainland examples from China, the Yamato armies did not adopt the organized infantry tactics of Chinese armies. Furthermore, Yamato Japan was still a nascent and developing state run in practice by local strongmen (although in theory by the royal court) and without any real form of unified command. In addition, Japanese soldiers were drawn from many corners by local "strongmen" that controlled their own territories (in an early form of feudalism). Among the Japanese, any standardization in either weapons or unit tactics is believed to have been minimal at best.
Many scholars have also puzzled over why Yamato went through so much effort to protect Baekje. Bruce Batten summarized:
"Why the Japanese should have thrown themselves with such vigor into a war that, if not quite an intramural Korean conflict, had at least no direct bearing on Japanese territory, is not easy to answer."
The battle, as well as all the preparation behind it, clearly illustrates (aside from any other documentation) the strong ties between Yamato Japan and Baekje of Korea transcending the usual interstate military, political, or economic interests. The linguist J. Marshall Unger suggests, based on linguistic evidence, that Baekje could represent a remnant proto-Japanese or para-Japanese community, which had stayed behind on the Korean peninsula after the
Yayoi
The started at the beginning of the Neolithic in Japan, continued through the Bronze Age, and towards its end crossed into the Iron Age.
Since the 1980s, scholars have argued that a period previously classified as a transition from the Jōmon p ...
migrations, but still maintained a conscious connection to the Yayoi people and their descendants. In any case, the phenomenon of elite refugees fleeing political conflict on the peninsula and settling in Yamato had been recurring in waves since at least the 5th century.
[Herman Ooms, ''Imperial Politics and Symbolics in Ancient Japan'', University of Hawai'i Press, 2009]
See also
*
Naval history of Korea
The naval history of Korea dates back thousands of years since the prehistoric timesThe Traditional ships of Korea By Wan-gi Chʻoe when simple fishing ships were used. Military naval history dates back to the Three Kingdoms period and Unified Sil ...
*
Naval history of China
The naval history of China dates back thousands of years, with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn period regarding the Chinese navy and the various ship types employed in wars.Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 678. The Ming dynasty of Chi ...
*
Naval history of Japan
The naval history of Japan began with early interactions with states on the Asian continent in the 3rd century BCE during the Yayoi period. It reached a pre-modern peak of activity during the 16th century, a time of cultural exchange with Europe ...
*
Largest naval battle in history
The "largest naval battle in history" is a disputed title between adherents of varying criteria which include the numbers of personnel and/or vessels involved in the naval battle, the total displacement of the vessels involved and sometimes the si ...
Notes
References
Bibliography
* Aston, W. G. (translated by) 1972 Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. Published by Charles E. Tuttle Company: Tokyo, Japan.
* Farris, William Wayne 1995 ''Heavenly Warriors: The Evolution of Japan's Military, 500–1300 AD''. United States: Published by The Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, Cambridge.
* Jamieson, John Charles. ''The Samguk sagi and the Unification Wars''. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1969.
External links
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