Operation Pyrsos ( el, Επιχείρηση «Πυρσός», "Torch") was the final campaign launched by the
National Army of the internationally recognized Greek government against the
communist forces during the
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War ( el, ο Eμφύλιος όλεμος ''o Emfýlios'' 'Pólemos'' "the Civil War") took place from 1946 to 1949. It was mainly fought against the established Kingdom of Greece, which was supported by the United Kingdom ...
. After the success of the preceding
Operation Pyravlos, communist forces in
central Greece
Continental Greece ( el, Στερεά Ελλάδα, Stereá Elláda; formerly , ''Chérsos Ellás''), colloquially known as Roúmeli (Ρούμελη), is a traditional geographic region of Greece. In English, the area is usually called Central ...
had been defeated and only the mountain strongholds of
Grammos
Gramos ( sq, Gramoz, Mali i Gramozit; rup, Gramosta, Gramusta; el, Γράμος or Γράμμος) is a mountain range on the border of Albania and Greece. The mountain is part of the northern Pindus mountain range. Its highest peak, at the ...
and
Vitsi
Vitsi ( el, Βίτσι) is a former municipality in Kastoria regional unit, West Macedonia, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Kastoria, of which it is a municipal unit. It takes its name from Mount Vitsi ...
in northwestern Greece remained under their control.
Yugoslavian assistance to the communists had come to an end in February 1949 amid the
Tito–Stalin split
The Tito–Stalin split or the Yugoslav–Soviet split was the culmination of a conflict between the political leaderships of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, under Josip Broz Tito and Joseph Stalin, respectively, in the years following World W ...
.
The National Army launched a diversionary attack on Grammos and their main force at Vitsi.
On August 25, following a massive attack by the National Army with aircraft and artillery, the Albanian government of
Enver Hoxha
Enver Halil Hoxha ( , ; 16 October 190811 April 1985) was an Albanian communist politician who was the authoritarian ruler of Albania from 1944 until his death in 1985. He was First Secretary of the Party of Labour of Albania from 1941 unt ...
cut off its assistance to the Greek communist forces; he did not attempt to disarm the Greek communists on his territory, but threatened to cut off food supplies if they returned to Greece.
The operation ended on August 30. The Greek communists formally surrendered in mid-October, ending the Greek Civil War.
Background
Towards the end of the
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War ( el, ο Eμφύλιος όλεμος ''o Emfýlios'' 'Pólemos'' "the Civil War") took place from 1946 to 1949. It was mainly fought against the established Kingdom of Greece, which was supported by the United Kingdom ...
, the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
who had previously been supporting and supplying the
Greek communist rebels, cut all incoming supplies to the rebels in line with the
percentages agreement
The percentages agreement was a secret informal agreement between British prime minister Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin during the Fourth Moscow Conference in October 1944. It gave the percentage division of control over Ea ...
. This move left the Greek communist rebels weakened and after Yugoslavia withdrew support to the rebels in July 1949, their only safe haven to launch invasions against the government forces of Greece lay in
Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea and shares ...
. Leskovik, near the Greek-Albanian border became for a period the headquarter of the Greek communist rebels hosting a training and supply center, as well as medical facilities for the Greek communist guerrillas, who would retreat back to Albania once their missions were completed.
In this period, both the British and French governments reported internally that the Greek army was preparing to move into Albania. The later provided the only base for Greek partisans launching artillery and mortar fire against national forces.
At the same time, the Greek government was pursuing negotiations to normalize relations with Albania. On the other hand, in Albania support to the Greek communist guerrillas was growing. Radio Tirana reported on 3 January 1948 that financial aid to the guerrillas already totalled over 630,000 leks. The Albanian government also permitted them to establish a radio station. The state-controlled Albanian press and radio service also regularly issued communiqués and appeals on behalf of the guerrillas. Albania also established a
concentration camp
Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges or intent to file charges. The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects". Thus, while it can simply ...
for abducted Greeks at Elbasan. In one incident in August 20, 1948, the armed group of
Markos Vafeiadis
Markos Vafeiadis (also spelled as Vafiadis and Vafiades; el, Μάρκος Βαφειάδης; Tosya, – Athens, ) was a leading figure of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) during the Greek Resistance and the Greek Civil War.
Pre-war life
...
was ambushed by the Greek government forces near the Albanian border. However, he was saved only after he crossed into Albania, withdrawing under covering fire by Albanian border guards.
Both Great Britain and the United States objected an assault against Albania. As such the Greek government forces only pursued the communist guerrillas who were retreating towards Albania. Greek units moved a few kilometres beyond the border and clashed sporadically with Albanian border patrols.
Phases of the operation
Pyrsos I (August 2-8)
For the first phase, the plan was to carry out sporadic deceptive attacks in the area of
Grammos
Gramos ( sq, Gramoz, Mali i Gramozit; rup, Gramosta, Gramusta; el, Γράμος or Γράμμος) is a mountain range on the border of Albania and Greece. The mountain is part of the northern Pindus mountain range. Its highest peak, at the ...
, in order to divert the attention of
Democratic Army and let it think that the main attack of the
National Army was to happen there; thus pinning down most of its forces to a single location.
The army's deployment for the implementation of Pyrsos I began in the early hours of August 2, 1949. During that operation, which lasted for six days, the National Army managed to occupy some key points in Grammos, which were later used in Pyrsos III. On August 8, Pyrsos I had fulfilled its purpose. Giorgis Blanas, also known by his ''
nom-de-guerre
A pseudonym (; ) or alias () is a fictitious name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which differs from their original or true name (orthonym). This also differs from a new name that entirely or legally replaces an individua ...
'' Kissavos, who was fighting on the side of the Democratic Army, wrote the following about this phase of the operation:
Pyrsos II (August 10-15)
Both Great Britain and the United States objected an assault against Albania. As such the Greek government forces only pursued the communist guerrillas who were retreating towards Albania. Greek units moved a few kilometers beyond the border and clashed sporadically with Albanian border patrols. By August 10 the
I Army Corps of the Greek army under Lieutenant General
Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos
Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos ( el, Θρασύβουλος Τσακαλώτος; 3 April 1897 – 15 August 1989) was a distinguished Hellenic Army Lieutenant General who served in World War I, the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, World War II and ...
was able to turn towards the heavily fortified, 375-square-mile mountain Vitsi sector. The communist guerrillas at one point were also supported by Albanian troops.
The aim of the National Army was to capture Vitsi and neutralize the forces of the Democratic Army there. The attack against Vitsi began two days after the end of Pyrsos I in the area of Grammos, and was meant to be the core of the broader operation. The attack was carried out by six army divisions that had a separate strength of 17 brigades, 9 battalions of light infantry, and were supported by 110
artillery guns, a number of tanks and armored vehicles, as well as 87 airplanes. The Democratic Army's forces defending Vitsi, were composed of two divisions, two brigades, 45
mountain gun
Mountain guns are artillery pieces designed for use in mountain warfare and areas where usual wheeled transport is not possible. They are generally capable of being taken apart to make smaller loads for transport by horses, humans, mules, tractor ...
s, 15
anti-aircraft guns
Anti-aircraft warfare, counter-air or air defence forces is the battlespace response to aerial warfare, defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action".AAP-6 It includes surface based, ...
, and 27
anti-tank guns
Anti-tank warfare originated from the need to develop technology and tactics to destroy tanks during World War I. Since the Triple Entente deployed the first tanks in 1916, the German Empire developed the first anti-tank weapons. The first devel ...
. They also had significant fortifications that were inaccessible to the guns of the National Army, within which they were ordered to hold the defense, until an order of a counter-attack was to be given.
Vitsi, as a front, was divided into three sectors; the right one which bordered Albania through the ''Mali–Madi'' mountain range, and the central and left, which bordered Yugoslavia through the ''Blena–Vonda'' mountain range. The most vulnerable sector was the central one, because it had a public road that crossed it and could be accessed by vehicles. From this road the forces of the Democratic Army were severely attacked on August 10, 1949, preceded by heavy aerial bombardment and artillery fire; from the gap that was created passed the 11th army division and a
company
A company, abbreviated as co., is a Legal personality, legal entity representing an association of people, whether Natural person, natural, Legal person, legal or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a common p ...
of
Mountain Raiders, which advanced to the south of the Democratic Army's forces, in the position of ''Tsouka''. As a result, the forces of the Democratic Army in Vitsi were divided in two parts.
On August 12, 1949, there was a new advance of the National Army. The
3rd Special Forces Division forced the Democratic Army to retreat towards the small Pyxos peninsula, between the
Little and Great Prespa Lakes; while attacks by the National Army's air force inflicted heavy casualties on them. The army began to carry out
landing operations
Landing is the last part of a flight, where a flying animal, aircraft, or spacecraft returns to the ground. When the flying object returns to water, the process is called alighting, although it is commonly called "landing", "touchdown" or ...
on Pyxos from the lakes. Henceforth, the forces of the Democratic Army in Vitsi were in a desperate situation, and on the night of August 14–15, 1949, they retreated and took refuge in Albanian territory.
Despite their heavy losses, the Democratic Army retreated orderly. Some 2,500 fighters were able to break away from Vitsi and cross to Grammos; reinforcing their remaining forces there. However, their losses were heavy; it was the only instance where the National Army took full advantage of its weaponry and numerical superiority, because its original objective of totally exterminating the Democratic Army with the fall of Vitsi, had failed. The Chief of the
National Army's general staff considered their escape as a defeat for the army, which is why he ordered interrogations. The result was to replace the commanders of three divisions, two brigades and the
II Army Corps .
The losses for the National Army during Pyrsos II were significant. Namely, 256 soldiers and officers were killed, and 1,336 were wounded. The losses for the Democratic Army were 1,182 dead and 637 prisoners, as well as 40
field
Field may refer to:
Expanses of open ground
* Field (agriculture), an area of land used for agricultural purposes
* Airfield, an aerodrome that lacks the infrastructure of an airport
* Battlefield
* Lawn, an area of mowed grass
* Meadow, a grass ...
and mountain guns, 33 anti-tank guns, 16 anti-aircraft guns, 115
mortars
Mortar may refer to:
* Mortar (weapon), an indirect-fire infantry weapon
* Mortar (masonry), a material used to fill the gaps between blocks and bind them together
* Mortar and pestle, a tool pair used to crush or grind
* Mortar, Bihar, a village i ...
, and other smaller arms.
Pyrsos III (August 25-30)
The third and final phase aimed at the capture of the area of Grammos with a decisive attack, in order to neutralize the remaining forces of the Democratic Army and block their escape to Albania.
After the fall of Vitsi, Grammos was the last stronghold of the Democratic Army left in Greece, where all their remaining forces had gathered. Pyrsos III would be directed by
Lieutenant General
Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the ...
Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos
Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos ( el, Θρασύβουλος Τσακαλώτος; 3 April 1897 – 15 August 1989) was a distinguished Hellenic Army Lieutenant General who served in World War I, the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, World War II and ...
, with five army divisions at his disposal, an independent brigade, four light infantry regiments, 120 artillery guns, plenty of armored vehicles suitable for rough terrain, and the entire air force which was reinforced with
Helldiver dive bomber
A dive bomber is a bomber aircraft that dives directly at its targets in order to provide greater accuracy for the bomb it drops. Diving towards the target simplifies the bomb's trajectory and allows the pilot to keep visual contact througho ...
s equipped with
Napalm
Napalm is an incendiary mixture of a gelling agent and a volatile petrochemical (usually gasoline (petrol) or diesel fuel). The name is a portmanteau of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: coprecipitated al ...
bombs; this was the first time such bombs were used in the battlefield.
The army of Tsakalotos, now experienced in
partisan warfare
A partisan is a member of an irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of military occupation, occupation by some kind of insurgent activity.
The term can apply to the field element of resist ...
, faced about 8,000 Democratic Army fighters (men and women) in Grammos; including the 2,500 fighters who had escaped from neighboring Vitsi. However, the forces of the Democratic Army were poorly armed and supplied, and also tired from their continuous presence on the front line due to lack of reserves. The battle was expected to be fatal for the rebels; it was evident that the situation was very different from 1947 and 1948 in the same area, when the rebels managed to recover from the National Army's attacks and eventually counter-attack.
Nikos Zachariadis
Nikos Zachariadis ( el, Νίκος Ζαχαριάδης; 27 April 1903 – 1 August 1973) was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) from 1931 to 1956, and one of the most important personalities in the Greek Civil War.
E ...
on the other hand, tried to remain optimistic, and issued the following:
In the early hours of August 25, 1949, the forces of the National Army were ordered by General Tsakalotos to move against their targets and execute the plan of Pyrsos III. The beginning of the attack took on a festive character.
King Paul and the American
Lieutenant General
Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the ...
James Van Fleet
General James Alward Van Fleet (March 19, 1892 – September 23, 1992) was a United States Army officer who saw service during World War I, World War II and the Korean War. Van Fleet was a native of New Jersey, who was raised in Florida and gradu ...
, were invited by Tsakalotos in a special vantage point in the Ammouda region of Grammos, from where they watched the successive waves of the National Army's attack with
military binoculars.
On August 26, the National Army managed to avoid considerable losses because its 9th Division outflanked the Democratic Army's defensive line along the Greek-Albanian border. The 9th division, advanced to the rear of the rebels, and occupied the ''Porta Osman'' crossing; the main gateway of communication between the Greek and Albania territories in the area of Grammos.
There was one more free passage to Albania; the ''Bara'' crossing. When the 9th division began to blockade the Greek-Albanian border, the Democratic Army's headquarters realized the danger of entrapment of its forces in Grammos, and gave the order to cross the Greek-Albanian border and take refuge in Albania, from the remaining crossing of ''Bara''. The following account was given by the commander of the Democratic Army, Georgios Gousias:
During the same night, the victorious forces of the National Army who had advanced to the Greek-Albanian border, lit huge fires along its entire length, so as to demarcate the border between Greece and Albania. On August 30, the peak of ''Kamenik'' fell; the last stronghold of the Democratic Army in Grammos.
During Pyrsos III, the National Army had 243 dead and 1,452 wounded soldiers, while the Democratic Army lost 922 fighters and 944 were captured. The latter left by taking their wounded and their military equipment, except for 17 mountain guns, 15 anti-aircraft guns, and 8 anti-tank guns; all collected by the National Army.
After the fall of Grammos and Vitsi, there were still a few scattered pockets of rebels in Greece, which could no longer be considered capable of threatening the establishment. According to the data of the National Army's general staff, in September 1949 there were still 2,150 rebels throughout the Greece, who were gradually decreasing due to many
desertions
Desertion is the abandonment of a military duty or post without permission (a pass, liberty or leave) and is done with the intention of not returning. This contrasts with unauthorized absence (UA) or absence without leave (AWOL ), which ar ...
. In October they were estimated at 1,750, and in November at 1,270. By December 1949, the rebels had been reduced to 800. In 1950 there were still some armed men in the mountains, which is indicated by the official data concerning the casualties of the army for that year. On October 16, 1949,
Dimitrios Partsalidis
Dimitrios "Mitsos" Partsalidis ( el, Δημήτρης "Μήτσος" Παρτσαλίδης) (1905–1980) was a Greek Communism, communist politician.
Biography
Partsalidis was a Pontic Greeks, Pontic Greek born in Trabzon in the Trebizond Vi ...
, as president of the
Provisional Democratic Government
The Provisional Democratic Government (Greek language, Greek: Προσωρινή Δημοκρατική Κυβέρνηση, ''Prosoriní Dimokratikí Kyvérnisi'') was the name of the administration declared by the Communist Party of Greece on 24 D ...
(the administration that was declared by the
Communist Party of Greece
The Communist Party of Greece ( el, Κομμουνιστικό Κόμμα Ελλάδας, ''Kommounistikó Kómma Elládas'', KKE) is a political party in Greece.
Founded in 1918 as the Socialist Labour Party of Greece and adopted its curren ...
), announced on radio the end of hostilities:
Aftermath
Albanian involvement in the
Greek Civil War
The Greek Civil War ( el, ο Eμφύλιος όλεμος ''o Emfýlios'' 'Pólemos'' "the Civil War") took place from 1946 to 1949. It was mainly fought against the established Kingdom of Greece, which was supported by the United Kingdom ...
seized only in the late summer of 1949, when it became clear that the communist-led Greek guerrillas were to be defeated by the Greek national forces.
[Shrader, 1999, p. 260] The Albanian government fearing an attack by the Greek army disarmed the communist guerrillas that were located in Albania and insisted that the later should leave the country. Soviet policy also dictated that any further Albanian involvement in the Greek civil war should be avoided, otherwise the independence of Albania would have been found in jeopardy. At September 11 Greek Prime Minister
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos ( el, Παναγιώτης Κανελλόπουλος; 13 December 1902, in Patras, Achaea – 11 September 1986, in Athens) was a Greek writer, politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He w ...
warned Albania that any renewed support to the communist guerrillas would result in Greek military action.
In September, the Greek minister of military affairs warned that if the Albanian state authorities continued to support the retreating insurgents within their territory, Greece would invade by invoking the right of ‘self-defence’. As such, Albania finally disarmed the communist insurgents and deported them to Soviet Union in accordance with Stalin’s instructions.
Footnotes
References
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{{coord missing, Greece
1949 in Greece
Conflicts in 1949
Pyrsos
Western Macedonia