The Battle of Balangiga ( es, Batalla de Balangíga; tl, Labanan sa Balangiga; war, Gubat ha Balangiga), also known as the Balangiga Encounter, Balangiga Incident, or Balangiga Conflict,
was a battle that occurred during the
Philippine–American War between Philippine forces and American troops. The battle is sometimes termed the "
Balingiga massacre," usually in accounts describing occupying American troops as victims of a massacre by townspeople. In response to the attack, United States General
Jacob H. Smith ordered indiscriminate attacks on the island of
Samar
Samar ( ) is the third-largest and seventh-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 1,909,537 as of the 2020 census. It is located in the eastern Visayas, which are in the central Philippines. The island is divided in ...
, openly disregarding
General Order 100, killing 2,000 to 2,500 people.
The battle is commemorated yearly as ''Balangiga Encounter Day'' in
Eastern Samar.
Background
The battle was a military operation planned by
Captain Eugenio Daza of the
Philippine Republican Army
The Philippine Revolutionary Army, later renamed Philippine Republican Army (Spanish: ''Ejército Revolucionario Filipino''; Tagalog: ''Panghimagsikang Hukbong Katihan ng Pilipinas''), was the official armed forces of the First Philippine Rep ...
, Area Commander of
General Vicente R. Lukban's forces for Southeastern Samar, that took place in
Balangiga in 1901 during the Philippine–American War. The attack was led by Valeriano Abanador the ''Jefe de la Policía'' (Chief of Police).
The Battle
The Battle of Balangiga took place in the town of
Balangiga on
Samar Island
Samar ( ) is the third-largest and seventh-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 1,909,537 as of the 2020 census. It is located in the eastern Visayas, which are in the central Philippines. The island is divided in ...
on September 28, 1901 wherein 48 members of the US 9th Infantry were
ambush
An ambush is a long-established military tactic in which a combatant uses an advantage of concealment or the element of surprise to attack unsuspecting enemy combatants from concealed positions, such as among dense underbrush or behind mo ...
ed by
irregular forces made up of the
Chief of Police
Chief may refer to:
Title or rank
Military and law enforcement
* Chief master sergeant, the ninth, and highest, enlisted rank in the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force
* Chief of police, the head of a police department
* Chief of the b ...
,
local police
Municipal police, city police, or local police are law enforcement agencies that are under the control of local government. This includes the municipal government, where it is the smallest administrative subdivision. They receive funding ...
officers,
local government
Local government is a generic term for the lowest tiers of public administration within a particular sovereign state. This particular usage of the word government refers specifically to a level of administration that is both geographically-l ...
officials,
village
A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town (although the word is often used to describe both hamlets and smaller towns), with a population typically ranging from a few hundred ...
rs.
Aftermath
This battle was described as the ''"worst defeat of
United States Army
The United States Army (USA) is the land warfare, land military branch, service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight Uniformed services of the United States, U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army o ...
soldiers since the
Battle of the Little Bighorn
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass, and also commonly referred to as Custer's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota Sioux, Nor ...
in 1876"''.
Legacy
The attack and the subsequent retaliation remains one of the longest-running and most controversial issues between the
Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
.
Conflicting interpretations by American and Philippine historians have confused the issue. The attack has been termed ''Balangiga Massacre'' in many English language sources. However, Philippine historian
Teodoro Agoncillo
Teodoro Andal Agoncillo (November 9, 1912 – January 14, 1985) was a prominent 20th-century Filipino historian. He and his contemporary Renato Constantino were among the first Filipino historians renowned for promoting a distinctly nationalist ...
has asserted that the term ''Balangiga massacre'' properly refers to the burning of the town by U.S. forces following the attack and to retaliatory acts during the ''
March across Samar
The march across Samar, or Waller's March across the island of Samar, was a failed attempt made in 1901 by a U.S. Marine unit commanded by Major Littleton W. T. Waller to traverse the Philippine island of Samar from Lanang (now Llorente, Easter ...
'': Other Philippine sources also employ this usage.
In U.S. sources, however, the term ''massacre'' is used to refer to this attack.
Prelude
![Balangiga photo of Company C with Valeriano Abanador](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Balangiga_photo_of_Company_C_with_Valeriano_Abanador.jpg)
In the summer of 1901, Brigadier General
Robert P. Hughes, who commanded the Department of the Visayas and was responsible for Samar, instigated an aggressive policy of
food deprivation and
property destruction
Property damage (or cf. criminal damage in England and Wales) is damage or destruction of real or tangible personal property, caused by negligence, willful destruction, or act of nature.
It is similar to vandalism and arson (destroying proper ...
on the island. The objective was to force the end of Philippine resistance. Part of his strategy was to close three key ports on the southern coast, Basey, Balangiga and Guiuan.
Samar was a major centre for the production of
Manila hemp
Manila hemp, also known as abacá, is a type of buff-colored fiber obtained from ''Musa textilis'' (a relative of edible bananas), which is likewise called Manila hemp as well as abacá. It is mostly used for pulping for a range of uses, inclu ...
, the trade of which was financing Philippine forces on the island. At the same time United States interests were eager to secure control of the hemp trade, which was a vital material both for the United States Navy and American agro-industries such as cotton.
On August 11, 1901,
Company C of the 9th U.S. Infantry Regiment, arrived in Balangiga—the third largest town on the southern coast of Samar island—to close its port and prevent supplies reaching Philippine forces in the interior,
which at that time were under the command of General
Vicente Lukbán
Vicente Lukbán y Rilles or Vicente Lucbán Rilles (February 11, 1860 – November 16, 1916) was a Philippine General in the Philippine Republican Army.
He was also an officer in Emilio Aguinaldo's staff during the Philippine Revolution and the ...
. Lukbán had been sent there in December 1898 to govern the island on behalf of the
First Philippine Republic
The Philippine Republic ( es, República Filipina), now officially known as the First Philippine Republic, also referred to by historians as the Malolos Republic, was established in Malolos, Bulacan during the Philippine Revolution against ...
under
Emilio Aguinaldo.
In late May of 1901, prior to the stationing of any Americans in Balangiga, town mayor Pedro Abayan had written to Lukban pledging to "observe a deceptive policy with
mericansdoing whatever they may like, and when a favorable opportunity arises, the people will strategically rise against them."
Relations between the soldiers and the townspeople were amicable for the first month of the American presence in the town; indeed it was marked by extensive
fraternization
Fraternization (from Latin ''frater'', brother) is "to become brothers" by conducting social relations with people who are actually unrelated and/or of a different class (especially those with whom one works) as if they were siblings, family memb ...
between the two parties. This took the form of ''
tuba
The tuba (; ) is the lowest-pitched musical instrument in the brass family. As with all brass instruments, the sound is produced by lip vibrationa buzzinto a mouthpiece. It first appeared in the mid-19th century, making it one of the ne ...
'' (palm wine) drinking among the soldiers and male villagers,
baseball
Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each, taking turns batting and fielding. The game occurs over the course of several plays, with each play generally beginning when a player on the fielding t ...
games and
arnis
Arnis, also known as Kali or Eskrima/Escrima, is the national martial art of the Philippines. The three are roughly interchangeable umbrella terms for the traditional martial arts of the Philippines (" Filipino Martial Arts", or FMA), which ...
demonstrations. However, tensions rose due to several reasons: Captain Thomas W. Connell, commanding officer of the American unit in Balangiga, ordered the town cleaned up in preparation for a visit by the U.S. Army's inspector-general. However, in complying with his directive, the townspeople inadvertently cut down vegetation with food value, in violation of Lukbán's policies regarding
food security
Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World ...
. As a consequence, on September 18, 1901, around 400 guerrillas sent by Lukbán appeared in the vicinity of Balangiga. They were to mete sanctions upon the town officials and local residents for violating Lukbán's orders regarding food security and for fraternizing with the Americans. The threat was probably defused by Captain
Eugenio Daza
Don Eugenio Daza y Salazar (November 15, 1870 – December 16, 1954) is a Filipino '' principale'' (nobleman) recognized by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) as the first ''maestro'' (teacher) in the Samar province. He was ...
, a member of Lukbán's staff, and by the parish priest, Father Donato Guimbaolibot.
A few days later, Connell had the town's male residents rounded up and detained for the purpose of hastening his clean-up operations. Around 80 men were kept in two
Sibley tents unfed overnight. In addition, Connell had the men's
bolos and the stored
rice
Rice is the seed of the grass species '' Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima'' (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera '' Zizania'' and '' Porteresia'', both wild and domesticat ...
for their tables confiscated. These events sufficiently insulted and angered the townspeople, and they planned revenge against the Americans.
A few days before the attack, Valeriano Abanador, the town's police chief, and Captain Daza met to plan the attack on the American unit.
To address the issue of sufficient manpower to offset the Americans' advantage in firepower, Abanador and Daza disguised the congregation of men as a work force aimed at preparing the town for a local ''
fiesta'' which, incidentally, also served to address Connell's preparations for his superior's visit. Abanador also brought in a group of "
tax evaders" to bolster their numbers. Much palm wine was brought in to ensure that the American soldiers would be drunk the day after the ''fiesta''. Hours before the attack, women and children were sent away to safety. To mask the disappearance of the women from the dawn service in the church, 34 men from
Barrio Lawaan cross-dressed as women worshippers.
These "women", carrying small
coffins, were challenged by Sergeant Scharer of the sentry post about the town plaza near the church. Opening one of the coffins with his bayonet, he saw the body of a dead child who, he was told, was a victim of a
cholera epidemic. Abashed, he let the women pass on. Unbeknownst to the sentries, the other coffins hid the ''bolos'' and other weapons of the attackers.
The issue of children's bodies merits further attention since there is much conflict between accounts by members of Company C. That day, the 27th, was the 52nd anniversary of the founding of the parish, an occasion on which an image of a recumbent Christ known as a
Santo Entierro would have been carried around the parish. In modern times these Santo Entierros are enclosed in a glass case but at the time were commonly enclosed in a wooden box.
Attack on American soldiers
![US 9th Infantry Regiment in the Philippines 1899](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/US_9th_Infantry_Regiment_in_the_Philippines_1899.jpg)
Between 6:20 and 6:45 in the morning of September 28, 1901, the villagers made their move. Abanador, who had been supervising the prisoners' communal labor in the town plaza, grabbed the rifle of Private Adolph Gamlin, one of the American sentries, and stunned him with a blow to the head. This served as the signal for the rest of the communal laborers in the plaza to rush the other sentries and soldiers of Company C, who were mostly having breakfast in the
mess area. Abanador then gave a shout, signaling the other Philippine men to the attack and fired Gamlin's rifle at the mess tent, hitting one of the soldiers. The
pealing of the church bells and the sounds from
conch shells being blown followed seconds later. Some of the Company C troopers were attacked and hacked to death before they could grab their rifles; the few who survived the initial onslaught fought almost bare-handed, using kitchen utensils, steak knives, and chairs. One private used a
baseball bat
A baseball bat is a smooth wooden or metal club used in the sport of baseball to hit the ball after it is thrown by the pitcher. By regulation it may be no more than in diameter at the thickest part and no more than in length. Although histor ...
to fend off the attackers before being overwhelmed.
The men detained in the Sibley tents broke out and made their way to the municipal hall. Simultaneously, the attackers hidden in the church broke into the
parish house
A clergy house is the residence, or former residence, of one or more priests or ministers of religion. Residences of this type can have a variety of names, such as manse, parsonage, rectory or vicarage.
Function
A clergy house is typically ow ...
and killed the three American officers there. An unarmed Company C soldier was ignored, as was Captain Connell's Philippine houseboy. The attackers initially occupied the parish house and the municipal hall; however, the attack at the mess tents and the barracks failed, with Pvt. Gamlin, recovering consciousness and managing to secure another rifle, caused considerable casualties among the Philippine forces. With the initial surprise wearing off and the attack degrading, Abanador called for the attackers to break off and retreat. The surviving Company C soldiers, led by Sergeant Frank Betron, escaped by sea to
Basey
Basey, officially the Municipality of Basey ( war, Bungto han Basey; tl, Bayan ng Basey), is a 1st class municipality in the province of Samar, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 56,685 people.
On 8 November 2013 ...
and
Tanauan, Leyte
Tanauan (IPA: ɐn'ʔaʊɐn, officially the Municipality of Tanauan ( war, Bungto han Tanauan; tl, Bayan ng Tanauan), is a 2nd class municipality in the province of Leyte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 57,455 ...
.
The townspeople buried their dead and abandoned the town.
Of the 74 men in Company C, 36 were
killed in action, including all its commissioned officers: Captain Thomas W. Connell, First Lieutenant Edward A. Bumpus and Major Richard S. Griswold.
Twenty-two were
wounded in action
Wounded in Action (WIA) describes combatants who have been wounded while fighting in a combat zone during wartime, but have not been killed. Typically, it implies that they are temporarily or permanently incapable of bearing arms or continuing ...
and four were
missing in action
Missing in action (MIA) is a casualty classification assigned to combatants, military chaplains, combat medics, and prisoners of war who are reported missing during wartime or ceasefire. They may have been killed, wounded, captured, ex ...
. Eight died later of wounds received in combat; only four escaped unscathed. The villagers captured about 100 rifles and 25,000 rounds of ammunition and suffered 28 dead and 22 wounded.
Retaliation
![Editorial cartoon about Jacob Smith's retaliation for Balangiga](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.PNG)
Captain Edwin Victor Bookmiller, the commander in Basey, sailed immediately with Company G, 9th Infantry Regiment for Balangiga aboard a commandeered coastal steamer, the SS ''Pittsburgh''.
Finding the town abandoned, they buried the American dead and set fire to the town.
Coming at a time when it was believed Filipino resistance to American rule had collapsed, the Balangiga attack had a powerful impact on Americans living in Manila. Men started to wear sidearms openly and
Helen Herron Taft
Helen Louise Taft (née Herron; June 2, 1861 – May 22, 1943), known as Nellie, was the wife of President William Howard Taft and the first lady of the United States from 1909 to 1913.
Born to a politically well-connected Ohio family, Nel ...
, wife of the American
Governor-General of the Philippines
The Governor-General of the Philippines (Spanish: ''Gobernador y Capitán General de Filipinas''; Filipino: ''Gobernador-Heneral ng Pilipinas/Kapitan Heneral ng Pilipinas''; Japanese: ) was the title of the government executive during the colo ...
William Howard Taft
William Howard Taft (September 15, 1857March 8, 1930) was the 27th president of the United States (1909–1913) and the tenth chief justice of the United States (1921–1930), the only person to have held both offices. Taft was elected pr ...
, was so distraught she required evacuation to Hong Kong.
[Taft, Helen Herron, ''Recollections of Full Years'', Butterick Publishing, New York (1914), p. 225]
The Balangiga incident provoked shock in the US public, too, with newspapers equating the massacre to
George Armstrong Custer
George Armstrong Custer (December 5, 1839 – June 25, 1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars.
Custer graduated from West Point in 1861 at the bottom of his class, b ...
's last stand at the
Battle of the Little Bighorn
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass, and also commonly referred to as Custer's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota Sioux, Nor ...
in 1876. Major General
Adna R. Chaffee, military governor of the Philippines, received orders from US President
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. ( ; October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919), often referred to as Teddy or by his initials, T. R., was an American politician, statesman, soldier, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer who served as the 26t ...
to pacify Samar. To this end, Chaffee appointed Brigadier General
Jacob H. Smith to Samar to accomplish the task.
General Smith instructed Major
Littleton Waller
Littleton Tazewell "Tony" Waller (September 26, 1856 – July 13, 1926) was a career officer in the United States Marine Corps, who served in the Spanish–American War, the Caribbean and Asia. He was court martialled and acquitted for acti ...
, commanding officer of a battalion of 315
US Marines
The United States Marine Corps (USMC), also referred to as the United States Marines, is the maritime land force service branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for conducting expeditionary and amphibious operations through combi ...
assigned to bolster his forces in Samar, regarding the conduct of pacification:
As a consequence of this order, Smith became known as "Howling Wilderness Smith"; he was also dubbed "Hell Roaring Jake" Smith, "The Monster", and "Howling Jake" by the press as a result. He further ordered Waller to kill all persons who were capable of bearing arms and in actual hostilities against the United States forces. When queried by Waller regarding the age limit of these persons, Smith replied that the limit was ten years of age.
Food and trade to Samar were cut off, intended to starve the revolutionaries into submission. Smith's strategy on Samar involved widespread destruction to force the inhabitants to stop supporting the guerrillas and turn to the Americans from fear and starvation. He used his troops in sweeps of the interior in search for guerrilla bands and in attempts to capture Philippine General
Vicente Lukbán
Vicente Lukbán y Rilles or Vicente Lucbán Rilles (February 11, 1860 – November 16, 1916) was a Philippine General in the Philippine Republican Army.
He was also an officer in Emilio Aguinaldo's staff during the Philippine Revolution and the ...
, but he did nothing to prevent contact between the guerrillas and the townspeople. American columns marched across the island, destroying homes and shooting people and draft animals. Littleton Waller, in a report, stated that over an eleven-day period his men burned 255 dwellings, shot 13
carabao
The carabao ( es, Carabao; tgl, Kalabaw; ceb, Kabaw; ilo, Nuang) is a domestic swamp-type water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis'') native to the Philippines. Carabaos were introduced to Guam from the Spanish Philippines in the 17th century. They ...
s and killed 39 people.
The
Judge Advocate General of the Army observed that only the good sense and restraint of the majority of Smith's subordinates prevented a complete reign of terror in Samar. The abuses outraged
anti-Imperialist
Anti-imperialism in political science and international relations is a term used in a variety of contexts, usually by nationalist movements who want to secede from a larger polity (usually in the form of an empire, but also in a multi-ethnic so ...
groups in the United States when these became known in March 1902.
The exact number of Filipinos killed by US troops will never be known. A population shortfall of about 15,000 is apparent between the Spanish census of 1887 and the American census of 1903, but how much of the shortfall is due to a disease epidemic and known natural disasters and how many due to combat is difficult to determine. Population growth in 19th century Samar was amplified by an influx of workers for the booming hemp industry, an influx which certainly ceased during the Samar campaign.
Exhaustive research in the 1990s made by British writer Bob Couttie as part of a ten-year study of the Balangiga massacre tentatively put the figure at about 2,500; David Fritz used population ageing techniques and suggested a figure of just more than 2,000 losses in males of combat age but nothing to support widespread killing of women and children.
[Fritz, David L, Before "The Howling Wilderness": The Military Career of Jacob Heard Smith, ''Military Affairs'', November–December (1979), p. 186] Some American and Filipino historians believe it to be around 50,000,
[Young, Kenneth Ray, "Guerrilla Warfare Revisited", ''Leyte Samar Studies'', XI:1 (1977), pp. 21–31] but those high estimates are thought to have resulted from typographical errors and misreading of documents. The rate of Samar's population growth slowed as refugees fled from Samar to Leyte,
[US Senate Committee Hearings "Affairs in the Philippine Islands" February 3, 1902, Vol. 3, p. 2341] yet still the population of Samar increased by 21,456 during the war.
American military historians' opinions on the Samar campaign are echoed in the February 2011 edition of the US Army's official historical magazine, ''Army History Bulletin'': "...the indiscriminate violence and punishment that U.S. Army and Marine forces under Brig. Gen. Jacob Smith are alleged to have unleashed on Samar have long stained the memory of the United States’ pacification of the Philippine Islands".
[Hendricks, Charles, Editor's Journal, ''Army History Bulletin'', PB 20-11-2 (No. 79), p. 2]
Commanding officers' courts-martial
![Balangiga Bells](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Balangiga_Bells.jpg)
Events in Samar resulted in prompt investigations. On April 15, 1902 the
Secretary of War
The secretary of war was a member of the U.S. president's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War", had been appointed to serve the Congress of the ...
Elihu Root sent orders to relieve officers of duty and to court-martial General Smith. "The President (Theodore Roosevelt) desires to know and in the most circumstantial manner all facts, nothing being concealed, and no man being for any reason favored or shielded. For the very reason that the President intends to back up the Army in the heartiest fashion in every lawful and legitimate method of doing its work, he also intends to see that the most rigorous care is exercised to detect and prevent any cruelty or brutality, and that men who are guilty thereof are punished".
["Affairs in the Philippine Islands", Vol. II, p. 1549]
Jacob H. Smith and Littleton Waller faced courts martial as a result of their heavy-handed treatment of Filipinos; Waller specifically for the execution of twelve Filipino bearers and guides. Waller was found not guilty, a finding that senior military officials did not accept. Smith was found guilty, admonished and forced to retire.
A third officer, Captain
Edwin Forbes Glenn
Edwin Forbes Glenn (January 10, 1857 – August 5, 1926) was a United States Army officer in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He served in World War I among other capacities.
Biography
Glenn was born near Greensboro, North Carolina, on Ja ...
, was court-martialled for torturing Filipinos and was found guilty.
Factual disputes
Several factual inaccuracies in early published accounts have surfaced over the years as historians continue to re-investigate the Balangiga incident. These include:
*Schott and Rey Imperial assert that Company C of the 9th US Infantry was sent to Balangiga in response to a request by its then-Mayor Pedro Abayan. This is based solely on a claim by George Meyer, a Company C survivor, in support of efforts to secure the
Medal of Honor
The Medal of Honor (MOH) is the United States Armed Forces' highest military decoration and is awarded to recognize American soldiers, sailors, marines, airmen, guardians and coast guardsmen who have distinguished themselves by acts of valo ...
. Author Bob Couttie asserts that the American unit was sent there to close Balangiga's port.
*James Taylor's account inspired another author, William T. Sexton, to write that the American soldiers were "butchered like hogs" in ''Soldiers in the Sun''. However,
Eugenio Daza
Don Eugenio Daza y Salazar (November 15, 1870 – December 16, 1954) is a Filipino '' principale'' (nobleman) recognized by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) as the first ''maestro'' (teacher) in the Samar province. He was ...
wrote, "The Filipino believes that the profanation of the dead necessarily brings bad luck and misfortune ... there was no time to lose for such acts
fter the Balangiga attack"
Gallery
File:Balangiga Massacre Monument.jpg, Battle of Balangiga monument
Balangiga massacre memorial marker.JPG, Battle of Balangiga memorial marker
Statue of Valeriano Abanador.JPG, Statue of Valeriano Abanador, Balangiga police chief during the Battle of Balangiga
Historical marker at the foot of Valeriano Abanador statue.JPG, Historical marker at the foot of Abanador statue
Cultural references
*
See also
*
Balangiga bells, on the bells seized as spoils of war and returned to the Philippines in 2018
*
Eugenio Daza
Don Eugenio Daza y Salazar (November 15, 1870 – December 16, 1954) is a Filipino '' principale'' (nobleman) recognized by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) as the first ''maestro'' (teacher) in the Samar province. He was ...
*
Vicente Lukban
Vicente is an Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese name. Like its French variant, Vincent, it is derived from the Latin name ''Vincentius'' meaning "conquering" (from Latin ''vincere'', "to conquer").
Vicente may refer to:
Location
*São Vicente, Ca ...
*
History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
*
Timeline of the Philippine–American War
*
Campaigns of the Philippine–American War
Fighting erupted between forces of the United States and those of the Philippine Republic on February 4, 1899, in what became known as the 1899 Battle of Manila. On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Republic officially declared war against th ...
Notes
References
Further
*
*, (e-book)
*
*{{cite journal, url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Infantry_Journal/3-laHwL3GDsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA147, title=Historical Sketches of the 9th Infantry, journal=Infantry Journal, year=1921, publisher=United States Infantry Association, a
Service in the Philippinesvolume=28, issue=3
1901 in the Philippines
Battles involving the United States
Battles of the Philippine–American War
Events that led to courts-martial
History of Eastern Samar
Massacres committed by the United States
September 1901 events
Visayan history
War crimes in the Philippines
United States war crimes
Massacres in 1901
Mass murder in 1901
Mass murder in the Philippines