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Saint Basil the Younger, ''Basileios ho Neos'', sometimes translated Basil the New. (died 26 March 944/952) was a
Byzantine Greek Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic) is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the Ottoman co ...
holy man and visionary. He is the subject of a
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
hagiographical biography, the ''Vita sancti Basilii iunioris'', written by his pupil Gregory. Although the ''Vita'' portrays its subject as historical, there is yet no consensus whether Basil or even Gregory were real persons or fabrications.


''Vita''


Manuscripts

The ''Vita sancti Basilii iunioris'' is preserved in whole or in part in a total of 24 manuscripts dating from the 12th to the 19th century. The fullest is the 16th-century Greek MS no. 249 of the Synodal (Patriarchal) Library in Moscow and published in François Halkin, ''
Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca The ''Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca'' is a catalogue of Greek hagiographic materials, including ancient literary works on the saints' lives, the translations of their relics, and their miracles, arranged alphabetically by saint. It is usual ...
'', 3rd edition (Brussels, 1957). Two 13th-century manuscripts are also known. Parisinus Gr. 1547 is an abridged text that uses less florid language generally. It has been published by
François Combefis François Combefis (or Combefisius) (November 1605 – 23 March 1679) was a French Dominican patrologist. He published previously unedited works by Saint John Chrysostom. Life He was born at Marmande, made his preliminary studies in the Jes ...
in the
Bollandist The Bollandist Society ( la, Societas Bollandistarum french: Société des Bollandistes) are an association of scholars, philologists, and historians (originally all Jesuits, but now including non-Jesuits) who since the early seventeenth century h ...
''
Acta Sanctorum ''Acta Sanctorum'' (''Acts of the Saints'') is an encyclopedic text in 68 folio volumes of documents examining the lives of Christian saints, in essence a critical hagiography, which is organised according to each saint's feast day. The project w ...
'', March III (1668). The codex Iviron 478 from
Mount Athos Mount Athos (; el, Ἄθως, ) is a mountain in the distal part of the eponymous Athos peninsula and site of an important centre of Eastern Orthodox monasticism in northeastern Greece. The mountain along with the respective part of the penins ...
contains only the visions and none of the biographical or historical material. It has been published by S. G. Vilinskij in ''Zapiski Imperatorskogo novorossijskogo universiteta'' (Odessa, 1911). Despite the publication of parts of these three manuscripts, no
critical edition Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and of literary criticism that is concerned with the identification of textual variants, or different versions, of either manuscripts or of printed books. Such texts may range in da ...
was produced before 2014, when a critical edition with an annotated English translation appeared. In the 14th-century, the ''Vita'' was translated into
Middle Bulgarian Middle Bulgarian language was the lingua franca and the most widely spoken language of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Being descended from Old Bulgarian, Middle Bulgarian eventually developed into modern Bulgarian language by the 16th century. ...
. This text was only found in 1975 in codex no. 20N from
St Catherine's Monastery, Sinai Saint Catherine's Monastery ( ar, دير القدّيسة كاترين; grc-gre, Μονὴ τῆς Ἁγίας Αἰκατερίνης), officially the Sacred Autonomous Royal Monastery of Saint Katherine of the Holy and God-Trodden Mount Sinai, ...
. The translation was made by a certain Father Peter.


Date of composition

The composition of the ''Vita'' is usually dated to between 956 and 959. The ''
terminus post quem ''Terminus post quem'' ("limit after which", sometimes abbreviated to TPQ) and ''terminus ante quem'' ("limit before which", abbreviated to TAQ) specify the known limits of dating for events or items.. A ''terminus post quem'' is the earliest da ...
'' is provided by the death of the Patriarch Theophylaktos, whom Gregory readily criticizes; the ''
terminus ante quem ''Terminus post quem'' ("limit after which", sometimes abbreviated to TPQ) and ''terminus ante quem'' ("limit before which", abbreviated to TAQ) specify the known limits of dating for events or items.. A ''terminus post quem'' is the earliest da ...
'' by the death of
Constantine VII Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe Kar ...
, since his joint reign with his son
Romanos II Romanos II Porphyrogenitus ( gr, Ρωμανός, 938 – 15 March 963) was Byzantine Emperor from 959 to 963. He succeeded his father Constantine VII at the age of twenty-one and died suddenly and mysteriously four years later. His son Bas ...
is mentioned but there is no reference to Romanos' sole reign. The ''terminus ante'' may, however, be pushed back to 961 (the death of Romanos' mother
Helena Lekapene Helena Lekapene ( grc-x-byzant, Ἑλένη Λεκαπηνή, translit=Lecapena) (c. 910 – 19 September 961) was the empress consort of Constantine VII, known to have acted as his political adviser and ''de facto'' co-regent. She was a daughter ...
) or even 963 (date of composition of the ''Vision of Kosmas'').


Vision of Theodora

One of the most famous passage's in the ''Vita'' concerns the death of Theodora, Basil's servant. Shortly after her death, Gregory asks Basil if Theodora was rewarded in the afterlife and Basil grants Gregory a vision. His vision begins in Basil's house, where Theodora is dying. She is surrounded by
Ethiopians Ethiopians are the native inhabitants of Ethiopia, as well as the global diaspora of Ethiopia. Ethiopians constitute several component ethnic groups, many of which are closely related to ethnic groups in neighboring Eritrea and other parts of ...
(representative of
demons A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology, and folklore; as well as in media such as comics, video games, movies, anime, ...
), who bear documents recording all her sins. As Theodora's soul exits her body, two angels weigh her good deeds against her sins until Basil arrives to provide a scarlet bag full of gold, his
supererogatory Supererogation (Late Latin: ''supererogatio'' "payment beyond what is needed or asked", from ''super'' "beyond" and ''erogare'' "to pay out, expend", itself from ''ex'' "out" and ''rogare'' "to ask") is the performance of more than is asked for; ...
good works, to outweigh her sins. The demons leave and Theodora and the angels go up through the air. The passage through the air towards
heaven Heaven or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the belie ...
is interrupted by 21 toll houses ('' telonia''), each manned by demons and dedicated to exposing a specific sin: Theodora's soul runs out of good deeds to outweigh her sins by the fifth toll house and must rely thereafter on Basil's gold. The angels tell her that at baptism each person receives a
guardian angel A guardian angel is a type of angel that is assigned to protect and guide a particular person, group or nation. Belief in tutelary beings can be traced throughout all antiquity. The idea of angels that guard over people played a major role in A ...
to record her good deeds and a demon to record her sins. If she fails at any toll house, the demons cast her soul into
Hades Hades (; grc-gre, ᾍδης, Háidēs; ), in the ancient Greek religion and myth, is the god of the dead and the king of the underworld, with which his name became synonymous. Hades was the eldest son of Cronus and Rhea, although this also ...
. The angels inform Theodora, who did not practice confession, that only through
confession A confession is a statement – made by a person or by a group of persons – acknowledging some personal fact that the person (or the group) would ostensibly prefer to keep hidden. The term presumes that the speaker is providing information th ...
and
penance Penance is any act or a set of actions done out of Repentance (theology), repentance for Christian views on sin, sins committed, as well as an alternate name for the Catholic Church, Catholic, Lutheran, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox s ...
can one erase one's sins while alive. The toll house of fornication, they add, is the most dangerous one. Theodora successfully passes through the toll houses, enters heaven and sees God.


Life

Of the 301 printed pages of the Moscow version of the ''Vita'', 38 cover the vision of the death of Basil's servant Theodora and 162 cover the visions of the
Resurrection of the Dead General resurrection or universal resurrection is the belief in a resurrection of the dead, or resurrection from the dead ( Koine: , ''anastasis onnekron''; literally: "standing up again of the dead") by which most or all people who have died ...
and the
Last Judgement The Last Judgment, Final Judgment, Day of Reckoning, Day of Judgment, Judgment Day, Doomsday, Day of Resurrection or The Day of the Lord (; ar, یوم القيامة, translit=Yawm al-Qiyāmah or ar, یوم الدین, translit=Yawm ad-Dīn, ...
. The ''Vita'' is as much a piece of
visionary literature A dream vision or ''visio'' is a literary device in which a dream or vision is recounted as having revealed knowledge or a truth that is not available to the dreamer or visionary in a normal waking state. While dreams occur frequently throughout ...
as it is a standard saint's life. "The author ... is evidently less concerned with asil's lifeas such than with using him as a pretext for recounting numerous other matters of interest to him." Chronologically, the ''Vita'' is divided into three parts separated by long gaps. Between the first and second parts there is a gap of 17 years and between the second and third one of about 20 years.


Move to Constantinople

At the start of the ''Vita'', Basil is living in
Asia Minor Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
as a grass-eating hermit or ''boskos''. Arrested on suspicion of espionage, he is brought to
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, where he is interrogated, tortured and thrown before a lion by the ''
parakoimomenos The ''parakoimōmenos'' ( el, παρακοιμώμενος, literally "the one who sleeps beside he emperor's chamber) was a Byzantine court position, usually reserved for eunuchs. The position's proximity to the emperors guaranteed its holders ...
''
Samonas Samonas ( el, , 875 – after 908) was an Arab-born eunuch, who was captured by the Byzantines and became one of the most influential officials of the Byzantine Empire during the first decade of the 10th century. Biography Samonas was born in c ...
. Unbroken, he does not even reveal his name and is thrown into the sea, where he is rescued by dolphins, who take him to Hebdomon. From there he returns to Constantinople, where he is sheltered by a poor husband and wife named John and Helena. This episode is said to take place in the tenth year of the joint reign of
Leo VI Leo VI (or Leon VI, notably in Greek) may refer to : * Leo VI the Wise, Byzantine emperor 886 to 912 * Pope Leo VI, 928 to 929 * King Leo VI of Armenia (1342 – 1393), of the House of Lusignan, last Latin king of the Armenian crusader Kingdom of C ...
and
Alexander Alexander is a male given name. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Variants listed here are Aleksandar, Al ...
, which would be 896. Samonas, however, did not become ''parakoimomenos'' until 907. After the death of John and Helena, Basil moves into the house of
Constantine Barbaros Constantine ( el, Κωνσταντῖνος), surnamed Barbaros ("the barbarian", ), was a Byzantine eunuch servant who rose to become ''parakoimomenos'' (head chamberlain) of the Byzantine emperor Leo VI the Wise in 911–912, displacing his own fo ...
, Samonas' successor as ''parakoimomenos'', in the Arkadianai quarter. There he spent the rest of his life except for a week he spent in the
Great Palace of Constantinople The Great Palace of Constantinople ( el, Μέγα Παλάτιον, ''Méga Palátion''; Latin: ''Palatium Magnum''), also known as the Sacred Palace ( el, Ἱερὸν Παλάτιον, ''Hieròn Palátion''; Latin: ''Sacrum Palatium''), was th ...
and a short period he spent as a guest in the house of the Paphlagonian brothers Anastasios and Constantine Gongylios near the
Harbour of Eleutherios The Harbour of Eleutherios (), originally known as the Harbour of Theodosius ( la, Portus Theodosiacus, ) was one of the ports of ancient Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, located beneath the modern Yenikapi neighbourhood of I ...
. These brothers, relatives of Barbaros and of the ''
tourmarches A ''turma'' (Latin for "swarm, squadron", plural ''turmae''), (Greek: τούρμα) was a cavalry unit in the Roman army of the Republic and Empire. In the Byzantine Empire, it became applied to the larger, regiment-sized military-administrative di ...
'' of Paphlagonia, are said to have been held in high regard by those reigning at the time, which points to the period of the regency of Empress
Zoe Karbonopsina Zoe Karbonopsina, also Karvounopsina or Carbonopsina, ( el, Ζωὴ Καρβωνοψίνα, translit=Zōē Karbōnopsina), was an empress and regent of the Byzantine empire. She was the fourth spouse of the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise and th ...
in 914–919 for Basil's stay. All three of Basil's hosts—Barbaros and the Gongylioi—were
eunuch A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...
s. Barbaros disappears from the historical record after the failed revolt his relative, Leo Phokas, in 919. During his stay in the Great Palace, Basil rebukes Romanos I for his greediness and lechery, a reproach that the emperor, indulgent towards monks, did not mind. Basil also convinces a certain Kosmas, who had ambitions of becoming emperor, to abandon his worldly pursuits and become a hermit near Nicomedeia. This story seems to be based on that of
Kosmas the Monk Cosmas or Kosmas is a Greek name ( grc-gre, Κοσμᾶς), from Ancient Greek Κοσμᾶς (Kosmâs), associated with the noun κόσμος (kósmos), meaning "universe", and the verb κοσμέω (to order, govern, adorn) linked to propriet ...
, who had a famous vision in 933.


Predictions and visions

The second part of the ''Vita'' recounts in detail the rebellion of
Constantine Doukas Constantine X Doukas or Ducas ( el, Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας, ''Kōnstantinos X Doukas'', 1006 – 23 May 1067), was Byzantine emperor from 1059 to 1067. He was the founder and first ruling member of the Doukid dynasty. Duri ...
in 913, which Basil is said to have predicted. Gregory admits that this part of the work is little concerned with Basil. It may be included because Doukas's widow was forced to retire to an estate in
Paphlagonia Paphlagonia (; el, Παφλαγονία, Paphlagonía, modern translit. ''Paflagonía''; tr, Paflagonya) was an ancient region on the Black Sea coast of north-central Anatolia, situated between Bithynia to the west and Pontus to the east, and s ...
or as an excuse to criticize the Patriarch
Nicholas Mystikos Nicholas I Mystikos or Nicholas I Mysticus ( el, Νικόλαος Α΄ Μυστικός, ''Nikolaos I Mystikos''; 852 – 11 May 925) was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from March 901 to February 907 and from May 912 to his death ...
. The third part of the ''Vita'' begins in the reign of
Romanos I Romanos I Lekapenos ( el, Ρωμανός Λεκαπηνός; 870 – 15 June 948), Latinized as Romanus I Lecapenus, was Byzantine emperor from 920 until his deposition in 944, serving as regent for the infant Constantine VII. Origin Romanos ...
, specifically after the death of his son
Christopher Christopher is the English language, English version of a Europe-wide name derived from the Greek language, Greek name Χριστόφορος (''Christophoros'' or ''Christoforos''). The constituent parts are Χριστός (''Christós''), "Jesus ...
(931) and at a time when there were seven persons of imperial rank in the palace. This is probably a reference to the widowed Romanos I, and his sons
Stephen Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; ...
and
Constantine Constantine most often refers to: * Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I *Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria Constantine may also refer to: People * Constantine (name), a masculine given name ...
and their wives, as well as Romanos' daughter Helena Lekapene and her husband, Constantine VII. The date of the marriages of Stephen and Constantine are not known with certainty, but Stephen's wife, Anna Gabalas, was only crowned in 933 and Constantine's first wife is not recorded before 939. Basil, however, prophesies that Helena will give birth to another daughter and then a son named Romanos, Since Romanos II was born in 938, this prophecy could only have been made in the mid-930s. In this part, Basil also predicts the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 941 four months in advance. God also gives him foreknowledge of the planned ''coup d'état'' of Romanos I's son-in-law Romanos Saronites. Basil tries to talk Saronites out of it, but is treated cruelly. Saronites then falls ill and dies. This is contradicted by
John Skylitzes John Skylitzes, commonly Latinized as Ioannes, la, Johannes, label=none, la, Iōannēs, label=none Scylitzes ( el, Ἰωάννης Σκυλίτζης, ''Iōánnēs Skylítzēs'', or el, Σκυλίτση, ''Skylítsē'', label=none ; la, ...
, who says that Saronites entered a monastery during the reign of Romanos II. Skylitzes does link his retirement to a rebellion, but does not implicate Saronites in it.


Death and burial

Basil is said to have died on 26 March during
Lent Lent ( la, Quadragesima, 'Fortieth') is a solemn religious observance in the liturgical calendar commemorating the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert and enduring temptation by Satan, according to the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke ...
, which corresponds to either 944 or 952. The earlier date is more likely. According to Gregory, he was buried by Constantine Barbaros in the private church of the Theotokos on the Asian side of the strait across from the capital. This is chronologically implausible, given that Barbaros is not heard of after 919. The likely source for this story is
Pseudo-Symeon Pseudo-Simeon (or Pseudo-Symeon Magistros) is the conventional name given to the anonymous author of a late 10th-century Byzantine Greek chronicle which survives in a single codex, Parisinus Graecus 1712, copied in the 12th or 13th century. It is a ...
, who records that Barbaros' father owned "a small suburban estate by the sea" near the capital and that Leo VI turned it into a monastery. The chronological inconsistencies and creative use of sources tell against the general historicity of the ''Vita''.


Notes


References


Footnotes


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * {{refend 10th-century Christian saints Byzantine hermits Ascetics Byzantine saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church 10th-century Byzantine people