A bank is a financial institution that accepts
deposits
A deposit account is a bank account maintained by a financial institution in which a customer can deposit and withdraw money. Deposit accounts can be savings accounts, current accounts or any of several other types of accounts explained below.
...
from the public and creates a
demand deposit
Demand deposits or checkbook money are funds held in demand accounts in commercial banks. These account balances are usually considered money and form the greater part of the narrowly defined money supply of a country. Simply put, these are depo ...
while simultaneously making
loan
In finance, a loan is the lending of money by one or more individuals, organizations, or other entities to other individuals, organizations, etc. The recipient (i.e., the borrower) incurs a debt and is usually liable to pay interest on that ...
s. Lending activities can be directly performed by the bank or indirectly through
capital markets.
Because banks play an important role in financial stability and the
economy
An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...
of a country, most jurisdictions exercise a
high degree of regulation over banks. Most countries have institutionalized a system known as
fractional reserve banking, under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities. In addition to other regulations intended to ensure
liquidity
Liquidity is a concept in economics involving the convertibility of assets and obligations. It can include:
* Market liquidity, the ease with which an asset can be sold
* Accounting liquidity, the ability to meet cash obligations when due
* Liq ...
, banks are generally subject to
minimum capital requirement
A capital requirement (also known as regulatory capital, capital adequacy or capital base) is the amount of capital a bank or other financial institution has to have as required by its financial regulator. This is usually expressed as a capital a ...
s based on an international set of capital standards, the
Basel Accords.
Banking in its modern sense evolved in the fourteenth century in the prosperous cities of
Renaissance Italy
The Italian Renaissance ( it, Rinascimento ) was a period in Italian history covering the 15th and 16th centuries. The period is known for the initial development of the broader Renaissance culture that spread across Europe and marked the trans ...
but in many ways functioned as a continuation of ideas and concepts of
credit
Credit (from Latin verb ''credit'', meaning "one believes") is the trust which allows one party to provide money or resources to another party wherein the second party does not reimburse the first party immediately (thereby generating a debt) ...
and
lending
In finance, a loan is the lending of money by one or more individuals, organizations, or other entities to other individuals, organizations, etc. The recipient (i.e., the borrower) incurs a debt and is usually liable to pay interest on that d ...
that had their roots in the
ancient world
Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient history cov ...
. In the
history of banking
The history of banking began with the first prototype banks, that is, the merchants of the world, who gave grain loans to farmers and traders who carried goods between cities. This was around 2000 BCE in Assyria, India and Sumeria. Later, in an ...
, a number of
banking dynasties notably, the
Medicis, the
Fuggers, the
Welser
Welser was a German banking and merchant family, originally a patrician family based in Augsburg and Nuremberg, that rose to great prominence in international high finance in the 16th century as bankers to the Habsburgs and financiers of C ...
s, the
Berenbergs, and the
Rothschilds have played a central role over many centuries. The
oldest existing retail bank is
Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena (founded in 1472), while the oldest existing
merchant bank is
Berenberg Bank (founded in 1590).
History
Ancient
The concept of banking may have begun in the times of ancient
Assyria
Assyria ( Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , romanized: ''māt Aššur''; syc, ܐܬܘܪ, ʾāthor) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state at times controlling regional territories in the indigenous lands of the ...
and
Babylonia with
merchants offering loans of grain as
collateral
Collateral may refer to:
Business and finance
* Collateral (finance), a borrower's pledge of specific property to a lender, to secure repayment of a loan
* Marketing collateral, in marketing and sales
Arts, entertainment, and media
* ''Collate ...
within a
barter
In trade, barter (derived from ''baretor'') is a system of exchange in which participants in a transaction directly exchange goods or services for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. Economists disti ...
system. Lenders in
ancient Greece
Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of Classical Antiquity, classical antiquity ( AD 600), th ...
and during the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediter ...
added two important innovations: they accepted
deposits
A deposit account is a bank account maintained by a financial institution in which a customer can deposit and withdraw money. Deposit accounts can be savings accounts, current accounts or any of several other types of accounts explained below.
...
and
changed money. Archaeology from this period in
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
,
ancient China and
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
also shows evidence of
money lending
In finance, a loan is the lending of money by one or more individuals, organizations, or other entities to other individuals, organizations, etc. The recipient (i.e., the borrower) incurs a debt and is usually liable to pay interest on that de ...
.
Medieval
The present era of banking can be traced to medieval and early
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...
Italy, to the rich cities in the centre and north like
Florence
Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany Regions of Italy, region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilan ...
,
Lucca
Lucca ( , ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, Central Italy, on the Serchio River, in a fertile plain near the Ligurian Sea. The city has a population of about 89,000, while its province has a population of 383,957.
Lucca is known as one ...
,
Siena
Siena ( , ; lat, Sena Iulia) is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena.
The city is historically linked to commercial and banking activities, having been a major banking center until the 13th and 14th centur ...
,
Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 bridges. The isla ...
and
Genoa
Genoa ( ; it, Genova ; lij, Zêna ). is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015, 594,733 people lived within the city's administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of ...
. The
Bardi and
Peruzzi
The Peruzzi were bankers of Florence, among the leading families of the city in the 14th century, before the rise to prominence of the Medici. Their modest antecedents stretched back to the mid 11th century, according to the family's genealogist ...
families dominated banking in 14th-century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe.
Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici set up one of the most famous Italian banks, the
Medici Bank
The Medici Bank (Italian: ''Banco dei Medici'' ) was a financial institution created by the Medici family in Italy during the 15th century (1397–1494). It was the largest and most respected bank in Europe during its prime. There are some estima ...
, in 1397. The
Republic of Genoa
The Republic of Genoa ( lij, Repúbrica de Zêna ; it, Repubblica di Genova; la, Res Publica Ianuensis) was a medieval and early modern maritime republic from the 11th century to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast. During the La ...
founded the earliest-known
state deposit bank,
Banco di San Giorgio (Bank of St. George), in 1407 at
Genoa
Genoa ( ; it, Genova ; lij, Zêna ). is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015, 594,733 people lived within the city's administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of ...
, Italy.
Early modern
Fractional reserve banking and the issue of
banknote
A banknote—also called a bill (North American English), paper money, or simply a note—is a type of negotiable promissory note, made by a bank or other licensed authority, payable to the bearer on demand.
Banknotes were originally issued ...
s emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries. Merchants started to store their gold with the
goldsmith
A goldsmith is a metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals. Nowadays they mainly specialize in jewelry-making but historically, goldsmiths have also made silverware, platters, goblets, decorative and servicea ...
s of
London
London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
, who possessed private
vaults, and who charged a fee for that service. In exchange for each deposit of precious metal, the goldsmiths issued
receipt
A receipt (also known as a packing list, packing slip, packaging slip, (delivery) docket, shipping list, delivery list, bill of the parcel, manifest, or customer receipt) is a document acknowledging that a person has received money or propert ...
s certifying the quantity and purity of the metal they held as a
bailee; these receipts could not be assigned, only the original depositor could collect the stored goods.
Gradually the goldsmiths began to lend money out on behalf of the
depositor
A deposit account is a bank account maintained by a financial institution in which a customer can deposit and withdraw money. Deposit accounts can be savings accounts, current accounts or any of several other types of accounts explained below.
...
, and
promissory notes (which evolved into banknotes) were issued for money deposited as a loan to the goldsmith. Thus by the 19th century we find in ordinary cases of deposits of money with banking corporations, or bankers, the transaction amounts to a mere loan or ''mutuum'', and the bank is to restore, not the same money, but an equivalent sum, whenever it is demanded
and money, when paid into a bank, ceases altogether to be the money of the principal (see Parker v. Marchant, 1 Phillips 360); it is then the money of the banker, who is bound to return an equivalent by paying a similar sum to that deposited with him when he is asked for it.
The goldsmith paid interest on deposits. Since the promissory notes were payable on demand, and the advances (loans) to the goldsmith's customers were repayable over a longer time-period, this was an early form of
fractional reserve banking. The promissory notes developed into an assignable instrument which could circulate as a safe and convenient form of money
backed by the goldsmith's promise to pay,
allowing goldsmiths to advance loans with little risk of
default. Thus the goldsmiths of London became the forerunners of banking by creating new money based on credit.
![Pohjoismaiden Osakepankin Helsingin sivukonttori](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Pohjoismaiden_Osakepankin_Helsingin_sivukonttori.jpg)
The
Bank of England originated the permanent issue of
banknote
A banknote—also called a bill (North American English), paper money, or simply a note—is a type of negotiable promissory note, made by a bank or other licensed authority, payable to the bearer on demand.
Banknotes were originally issued ...
s in 1695. The
Royal Bank of Scotland established the first
overdraft facility in 1728. By the beginning of the 19th century
Lubbock's Bank had established a
bankers' clearing house
Cheque clearing (or check clearing in American English) or bank clearance is the process of moving cash (or its equivalent) from the bank on which a cheque is drawn to the bank in which it was deposited, usually accompanied by the movement of the c ...
in London to allow multiple banks to clear transactions. The
Rothschilds pioneered
international finance
International finance (also referred to as international monetary economics or international macroeconomics) is the branch of financial economics broadly concerned with monetary and macroeconomic interrelations between two or more countries. Inter ...
on a large scale, financing the purchase of shares in the
Suez canal for the British government in 1875.
Etymology
The word'' bank'' was taken into
Middle English
Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English ...
from
Middle French
Middle French (french: moyen français) is a historical division of the French language that covers the period from the 14th to the 16th century. It is a period of transition during which:
* the French language became clearly distinguished from ...
''banque'', from Old
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
''banca'', meaning "table", from
Old High German
Old High German (OHG; german: Althochdeutsch (Ahd.)) is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally covering the period from around 750 to 1050.
There is no standardised or supra-regional form of German at this period, and Old High ...
''banc, bank'' "bench, counter". Benches were used as makeshift desks or exchange counters during the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...
by
Florentine bankers, who used to make their transactions atop desks covered by green tablecloths.
Definition
The definition of a bank varies from country to country. See the relevant country pages for more information.
Under
English common law
English law is the common law legal system of England and Wales, comprising mainly criminal law and civil law, each branch having its own courts and procedures.
Principal elements of English law
Although the common law has, historically, be ...
, a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking by conducting
current accounts for their customers, paying
cheques
A cheque, or check (American English; see spelling differences) is a document that orders a bank (or credit union) to pay a specific amount of money from a person's account to the person in whose name the cheque has been issued. The pers ...
drawn on them and also collecting
cheques
A cheque, or check (American English; see spelling differences) is a document that orders a bank (or credit union) to pay a specific amount of money from a person's account to the person in whose name the cheque has been issued. The pers ...
for their customers.
![Bank](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Bank.Pokhara.JPG)
In most common law jurisdictions there is a Bills of Exchange Act that codifies the law in relation to
negotiable instruments
A negotiable instrument is a document guaranteeing the payment of a specific amount of money, either on demand, or at a set time, whose payer is usually named on the document. More specifically, it is a document contemplated by or consisting of a ...
, including
cheques
A cheque, or check (American English; see spelling differences) is a document that orders a bank (or credit union) to pay a specific amount of money from a person's account to the person in whose name the cheque has been issued. The pers ...
, and this Act contains a statutory definition of the term ''banker'': ''banker'' includes a body of persons, whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business of banking' (Section 2, Interpretation). Although this definition seems circular, it is actually functional, because it ensures that the legal basis for bank transactions such as cheques does not depend on how the bank is structured or regulated.
The business of banking is in many common law countries not defined by statute but by common law, the definition above. In other English common law jurisdictions there are statutory definitions of the ''business of banking'' or ''banking business''. When looking at these definitions it is important to keep in mind that they are defining the business of banking for the purposes of the legislation, and not necessarily in general. In particular, most of the definitions are from legislation that has the purpose of regulating and supervising banks rather than regulating the actual business of banking. However, in many cases, the statutory definition closely mirrors the common law one. Examples of statutory definitions:
* "banking business" means the business of receiving money on current or deposit account, paying and collecting cheques drawn by or paid in by customers, the making of advances to customers, and includes such other business as the Authority may prescribe for the purposes of this Act; (Banking Act (
Singapore
Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, bor ...
), Section 2, Interpretation).
* "banking business" means the business of either or both of the following:
# receiving from the general public money on current, deposit, savings or other similar account repayable on demand or within less than
months... or with a period of call or notice of less than that period;
# paying or collecting cheques drawn by or paid in by customers.
Since the advent of
EFTPOS
Electronic funds transfer at point of sale (EFTPOS; ) is an electronic payment system involving electronic funds transfers based on the use of payment cards, such as debit or credit cards, at payment terminals located at points of sale. EFTPOS ...
(Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale), direct credit,
direct debit A direct debit or direct withdrawal is a financial transaction in which one organisation withdraws funds from a payer's bank account., https://www.directdebit.co.uk/direct-debit-explained/what-is-direct-debit/ Formally, the organisation that calls f ...
and
internet banking
Online banking, also known as internet banking, web banking or home banking, is an electronic payment system that enables customers of a bank or other financial institution to conduct a range of financial transactions through the financial insti ...
, the cheque has lost its primacy in most banking systems as a payment instrument. This has led legal theorists to suggest that the cheque based definition should be broadened to include financial institutions that conduct current accounts for customers and enable customers to pay and be paid by third parties, even if they do not pay and collect cheques .
Standard business
![WinonaSavingsBankVault](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/WinonaSavingsBankVault.JPG)
Banks act as payment agents by conducting
checking or current accounts for customers, paying
cheque
A cheque, or check (American English; see spelling differences) is a document that orders a bank (or credit union) to pay a specific amount of money from a person's account to the person in whose name the cheque has been issued. The pers ...
s drawn by customers in the bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as
Automated Clearing House
An automated clearing house (ACH) is a computer-based electronic network for processing transactions, usually domestic low value payments, between participating financial institutions. It may support both credit transfers and direct debits. T ...
(ACH),
Wire transfer
Wire transfer, bank transfer, or credit transfer, is a method of electronic funds transfer from one person or entity to another. A wire transfer can be made from one bank account to another bank account, or through a transfer of cash at a cash ...
s or
telegraphic transfer
Telegraphic Transfer or telex transfer, often abbreviated to TT, is a term used to refer to an electronic means of transferring funds. A transfer charge is often charged by the sending bank and in some cases by the receiving bank.
Historically t ...
,
EFTPOS
Electronic funds transfer at point of sale (EFTPOS; ) is an electronic payment system involving electronic funds transfers based on the use of payment cards, such as debit or credit cards, at payment terminals located at points of sale. EFTPOS ...
, and
automated teller machine
An automated teller machine (ATM) or cash machine (in British English) is an electronic telecommunications device that enables customers of financial institutions to perform financial transactions, such as cash withdrawals, deposits, fun ...
s (ATMs).
Banks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting
term deposits, and by issuing debt securities such as
banknotes
A banknote—also called a bill (North American English), paper money, or simply a note—is a type of negotiable promissory note, made by a bank or other licensed authority, payable to the bearer on demand.
Banknotes were originally issued ...
and
bonds. Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making
installment loan An installment loan is a type of agreement or contract involving a loan that is repaid over time with a set number of scheduled payments; normally at least two payments are made towards the loan. The term of loan may be as little as a few months and ...
s, and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending.
Banks provide different payment services, and a bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses and individuals. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are normally not considered as an adequate substitute for a bank account.
Banks issue new money when they make loans. In contemporary banking systems, regulators set a minimum level of reserve funds that banks must hold against the deposit liabilities created by the funding of these loans, in order to ensure that the banks can meet demands for payment of such deposits. These reserves can be acquired through the acceptance of new deposits, sale of other assets, or borrowing from other banks including the central bank.
Range of activities
Activities undertaken by banks include
personal banking
Retail banking, also known as consumer banking or personal banking, is the provision of services by a bank to the general public, rather than to companies, corporations or other banks, which are often described as wholesale banking. Banking servi ...
,
corporate banking
Wholesale banking is the provision of services by banks to larger customers or organizations such as mortgage brokers, large corporate clients, mid-sized companies, real estate developers and investors, international trade finance businesses, ...
,
investment banking,
private banking
Private banking is banking, investment and other financial services provided by banks and financial institutions primarily serving high-net-worth individuals (HNWIs)—defined as those with very high levels of income or sizable assets. A bank that ...
,
transaction banking,
insurance
Insurance is a means of protection from financial loss in which, in exchange for a fee, a party agrees to compensate another party in the event of a certain loss, damage, or injury. It is a form of risk management, primarily used to hedge ...
,
consumer finance
Personal finance is the financial management which an individual or a family unit performs to budget, save, and spend monetary resources over time, taking into account various financial risks and future life events.
When planning personal fi ...
,
trade finance
Trade finance is a phrase used to describe different strategies that are employed to make international trade easier. It signifies financing for trade, and it concerns both domestic and international trade transactions. A trade transaction require ...
and other related.
Channels
![SunTrust Bank, Gaithersburg, Maryland, August 25, 2015](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/SunTrust_Bank%2C_Gaithersburg%2C_Maryland%2C_August_25%2C_2015.jpg)
Banks offer many different channels to access their banking and other services:
*
Branch, in-person banking in a retail location
*
Automated teller machine banking adjacent to or remote from the bank
* Bank by mail: Most banks accept cheque deposits via mail and use mail to communicate to their customers
*
Online banking
Online banking, also known as internet banking, web banking or home banking, is an electronic payment system that enables customers of a bank or other financial institution to conduct a range of financial transactions through the financial ins ...
over the Internet to perform multiple types of transactions
*
Mobile banking
Mobile banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution that allows its customers to conduct financial transactions remotely using a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet. Unlike the related internet banking it uses ...
is using one's mobile phone to conduct banking transactions
*
Telephone banking
Telephone banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution, that enables customers to perform over the telephone a range of financial transactions which do not involve cash or Financial instruments (such as cheques), without ...
allows customers to conduct transactions over the telephone with an
automated attendant
In telephony, an automated attendant (also auto attendant, auto-attendant, autoattendant, automatic phone menus, AA, or virtual receptionist) allows callers to be automatically transferred to an extension without the intervention of an operator/ ...
, or when requested, with a
telephone operator
*
Video banking Video banking is a term used for performing banking transactions or professional banking consultations via a remote video connection. Video banking can be performed via purpose built banking transaction machines (similar to an Automated teller mach ...
performs banking transactions or professional banking consultations via a remote video and audio connection. Video banking can be performed via purpose built banking transaction machines (similar to an Automated teller machine) or via a
video conference
Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video was first developed for mechanical television systems, which were quickly replaced by cathode-ray tube (CRT) system ...
enabled bank branch clarification
*
Relationship manager, mostly for private banking or business banking, who visits customers at their homes or businesses
*
Direct Selling Agent, who works for the bank based on a contract, whose main job is to increase the customer base for the bank
Business models
A bank can generate revenue in a variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. Traditionally, the most significant method is via charging
interest
In finance and economics, interest is payment from a borrower or deposit-taking financial institution to a lender or depositor of an amount above repayment of the principal sum (that is, the amount borrowed), at a particular rate. It is distin ...
on the capital it lends out to customers. The bank
profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities.
This difference is referred to as the
spread
Spread may refer to:
Places
* Spread, West Virginia
Arts, entertainment, and media
* ''Spread'' (film), a 2009 film.
* ''$pread'', a quarterly magazine by and for sex workers
* "Spread", a song by OutKast from their 2003 album ''Speakerboxxx/T ...
between the cost of funds and the loan interest rate. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been cyclical and dependent on the needs and strengths of loan customers and the stage of the
economic cycle
Business cycles are intervals of expansion followed by recession in economic activity. These changes have implications for the welfare of the broad population as well as for private institutions. Typically business cycles are measured by examini ...
. Fees and financial advice constitute a more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on these revenue lines to smooth their financial performance.
In the past 20 years, American banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to increasingly changing market conditions.
* First, this includes the
Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act
The Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, () is an act of the 106th United States Congress (1999–2001). It repealed part of the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933, removing barriers in ...
, which allows banks again to merge with investment and insurance houses. Merging banking, investment, and insurance functions allows traditional banks to respond to increasing consumer demands for "one-stop shopping" by enabling
cross-selling
Cross-selling is a sales technique involving the selling of an additional product or service to an existing customer. In practice, businesses define cross-selling in many different ways. Elements that might influence the definition might include ...
of products (which, the banks hope, will also increase profitability).
* Second, they have expanded the use of
risk-based pricing from business lending to consumer lending, which means charging higher interest rates to those customers that are considered to be a higher credit risk and thus increased chance of
default on loans. This helps to offset the losses from bad loans, lowers the price of loans to those who have better credit histories, and offers credit products to high risk customers who would otherwise be denied credit.
* Third, they have sought to increase the methods of payment processing available to the general public and business clients. These products include
debit cards, prepaid cards,
smart cards, and
credit card
A credit card is a payment card issued to users (cardholders) to enable the cardholder to pay a merchant for goods and services based on the cardholder's accrued debt (i.e., promise to the card issuer to pay them for the amounts plus the o ...
s. They make it easier for consumers to conveniently make transactions and
smooth their consumption over time (in some countries with underdeveloped financial systems, it is still common to deal strictly in cash, including carrying suitcases filled with cash to purchase a home).
:However, with the convenience of easy credit, there is also an increased risk that consumers will mismanage their financial resources and accumulate excessive debt. Banks make money from card products through interest charges and fees charged to cardholders, and
transaction fees to retailers who accept the bank's credit and/or debit cards for payments.
This helps in making a profit and facilitates economic development as a whole.
Recently, as banks have been faced with pressure from fintechs, new and additional business models have been suggested such as freemium, monetisation of data, white-labeling of banking and payment applications, or the cross-selling of complementary products.
Products
Retail
*
Savings account
A savings account is a bank account at a retail bank. Common features include a limited number of withdrawals, a lack of cheque and linked debit card facilities, limited transfer options and the inability to be overdrawn. Traditionally, transa ...
*
Recurring deposit account
*
Fixed deposit account
*
Money market account
*
Certificate of deposit (CD)
* Individual retirement account (IRA)
* Credit card
* Debit card
* Mortgage
* Mutual fund
* Personal loan
* Time deposits
* ATM card
* Transactional account#Current accounts, Current accounts
* Cheque, Cheque books
* Automated teller machine (ATM)
* National Electronic Fund Transfer (NEFT)
* Real-time gross settlement (RTGS)
Business (or commercial/investment) banking
* Loan, Business loan
* Stock exchange#Raising capital for businesses, Capital raising (Equity (finance), equity / debt / Hybrid security, hybrids)
* Revolving credit
* Risk management (Foreign exchange market, foreign exchange (FX), interest rates, Commodity, commodities, Derivative (finance), derivatives)
* Term loan
* Cash management services (lock box, remote deposit capture, merchant processing)
* Credit (finance), Credit services
* Securities Services
Capital and risk
Banks face a number of financial risk, risks in order to conduct their business, and how well these risks are managed and understood is a key driver behind profitability, and how much Capital requirement, capital a bank is required to hold. Bank capital consists principally of common stock, equity, retained earnings and subordinated debt.
Some of the main risks faced by banks include:
* Credit risk: risk of loss arising from a borrower who does not make payments as promised.
* Liquidity risk: risk that a given security or asset cannot be traded quickly enough in the market to prevent a loss (or make the required profit).
* Market risk: risk that the value of a portfolio, either an investment portfolio or a trading portfolio, will decrease due to the change in value of the market risk factors.
* Operational risk: risk arising from the execution of a company's business functions.
* Reputational risk: a type of risk related to the trustworthiness of the business.
* Macroeconomics, Macroeconomic risk: risks related to the aggregate economy the bank is operating in.
The capital requirement is a bank regulation, which sets a framework within which a bank or depository institution must manage its balance sheet. The categorisation of assets and capital is highly standardised so that it can be risk-weighted asset, risk weighted.
After the financial crisis of 2007–2008, regulators force banks to issue ''Contingent convertible bonds'' (CoCos). These are hybrid capital securities that absorb losses in accordance with their contractual terms when the capital of the issuing bank falls below a certain level. Then debt is reduced and bank capitalisation gets a boost. Owing to their capacity to absorb losses, CoCos have the potential to satisfy regulatory capital requirement.
Banks in the economy
Economic functions
The economic functions of banks include:
# Issue of money, in the form of
banknotes
A banknote—also called a bill (North American English), paper money, or simply a note—is a type of negotiable promissory note, made by a bank or other licensed authority, payable to the bearer on demand.
Banknotes were originally issued ...
and current accounts subject to
cheque
A cheque, or check (American English; see spelling differences) is a document that orders a bank (or credit union) to pay a specific amount of money from a person's account to the person in whose name the cheque has been issued. The pers ...
or payment at the customer's order. These claims on banks can act as money because they are negotiable or repayable on demand, and hence valued at par. They are effectively transferable by mere delivery, in the case of banknotes, or by drawing a cheque that the payee may bank or cash.
# Netting and settlement of payments – banks act as both collection and paying agents for customers, participating in interbank clearing and settlement systems to collect, present, be presented with, and pay payment instruments. This enables banks to economise on reserves held for settlement of payments since inward and outward payments offset each other. It also enables the offsetting of payment flows between geographical areas, reducing the cost of settlement between them.
# Credit quality improvement – banks lend money to ordinary commercial and personal borrowers (ordinary credit quality), but are high quality borrowers. The improvement comes from diversification of the bank's assets and capital which provides a buffer to absorb losses without defaulting on its obligations. However, banknotes and deposits are generally unsecured; if the bank gets into difficulty and pledges assets as security, to raise the funding it needs to continue to operate, this puts the note holders and depositors in an economically subordinated position.
# Asset liability mismatch/Maturity transformation – banks borrow more on demand debt and short term debt, but provide more long-term loans. In other words, they borrow short and lend long. With a stronger credit quality than most other borrowers, banks can do this by aggregating issues (e.g. accepting deposits and issuing banknotes) and redemptions (e.g. withdrawals and redemption of banknotes), maintaining reserves of cash, investing in marketable securities that can be readily converted to cash if needed, and raising replacement funding as needed from various sources (e.g. wholesale cash markets and securities markets).
# Money creation/destruction – whenever a bank gives out a loan in a fractional-reserve banking system, a new sum of money is created and conversely, whenever the principal on that loan is repaid money is destroyed.
Bank crisis
![Bosakov dom](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Bosakov_dom.jpg)
Banks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. These include liquidity risk (where many depositors may request withdrawals in excess of available funds), credit risk (the chance that those who owe money to the bank will not repay it), and interest rate risk (the possibility that the bank will become unprofitable, if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans).
Banking crises have developed many times throughout history when one or more risks have emerged for the banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the bank run that occurred during the Great Depression, the U.S. Savings and Loan crisis in the 1980s and early 1990s, the Japanese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the 2000s.
Size of global banking industry
Assets of the largest 1,000 banks in the world grew by 6.8% in the 2008–2009 financial year to a record US$96.4 trillion while profits declined by 85% to US$115 billion. Growth in assets in adverse market conditions was largely a result of recapitalisation. EU banks held the largest share of the total, 56% in 2008–2009, down from 61% in the previous year. Asian banks' share increased from 12% to 14% during the year, while the share of US banks increased from 11% to 13%. Fee revenue generated by global investment in banking totalled US$66.3 billion in 2009, up 12% on the previous year.
[ charts 7–8]
The United States has the most banks in the world in terms of institutions (5,330 as of 2015) and possibly branches (81,607 as of 2015). This is an indicator of the geography and regulatory structure of the US, resulting in a large number of small to medium-sized institutions in its banking system. As of November 2009, China's top four banks have in excess of 67,000 branches (ICBC:18000+, Bank of China, BOC:12000+, China Construction Bank, CCB:13000+, Agricultural Bank of China, ABC:24000+) with an additional 140 smaller banks with an undetermined number of branches.
Japan had 129 banks and 12,000 branches. In 2004, Germany, France, and Italy each had more than 30,000 branches – more than double the 15,000 branches in the United Kingdom.
[
]
Mergers and acquisitions
Between 1985 and 2018 banks engaged in around 28,798 mergers or acquisitions, either as the acquirer or the target company. The overall known value of these deals cumulates to around 5,169 bil. USD. In terms of value, there have been two major waves (1999 and 2007) which both peaked at around 460 bil. USD followed by a steep decline (-82% from 2007 until 2018).
Here is a list of the largest deals in history in terms of value with participation from at least one bank:
Regulation
Currently, commercial banks are regulated in most jurisdictions by government entities and require a special bank license to operate.
Usually, the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to the customer's order – although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition.
Unlike most other regulated industries, the regulator is typically also a participant in the market, being either publicly or privately governed central bank. Central banks also typically have a monopoly on the business of issuing banknote
A banknote—also called a bill (North American English), paper money, or simply a note—is a type of negotiable promissory note, made by a bank or other licensed authority, payable to the bearer on demand.
Banknotes were originally issued ...
s. However, in some countries, this is not the case. In the UK, for example, the Financial Services Authority licenses banks, and some commercial banks (such as the Bank of Scotland) issue their own banknotes in addition to those issued by the Bank of England, the UK government's central bank.
Banking law is based on a contractual analysis of the relationship between the ''bank'' (defined above) and the ''customer'' – defined as any entity for which the bank agrees to conduct an account.
The law implies rights and obligations into this relationship as follows:
* The bank account balance is the financial position between the bank and the customer: when the account is in credit, the bank owes the balance to the customer; when the account is overdrawn, the customer owes the balance to the bank.
*
* The bank agrees to pay the customer's checks up to the amount standing to the credit of the customer's account, plus any agreed overdraft limit.
*
* The bank may not pay from the customer's account without a mandate from the customer, e.g. a cheque drawn by the customer.
*
* The bank agrees to promptly collect the cheques deposited to the customer's account as the customer's agent and to credit the proceeds to the customer's account.
*
* And, the bank has a right to combine the customer's accounts since each account is just an aspect of the same credit relationship.
*
* The bank has a lien on cheques deposited to the customer's account, to the extent that the customer is indebted to the bank.
*
* The bank must not disclose details of transactions through the customer's account – unless the customer consents, there is a public duty to disclose, the bank's interests require it, or the law demands it.
*
* The bank must not close a customer's account without reasonable notice, since cheques are outstanding in the ordinary course of business for several days.
These implied contractual terms may be modified by express agreement between the customer and the bank. The statutes and regulations in force within a particular jurisdiction may also modify the above terms and/or create new rights, obligations, or limitations relevant to the bank-customer relationship.
Some types of financial institutions, such as Building Society, building societies and credit unions, may be partly or wholly exempt from bank license requirements, and therefore regulated under separate rules.
The requirements for the issue of a bank license vary between jurisdictions but typically include:
* Minimum capital
* Minimum capital ratio
* 'Fit and Proper' requirements for the bank's controllers, owners, directors, or senior officers
* Approval of the bank's business plan as being sufficiently prudent and plausible.
Different types of banking
Banks' activities can be divided into:
* retail banking, dealing directly with individuals and small businesses;
* business banking, providing services to mid-market business;
* corporate banking, directed at large business entities;
* private banking
Private banking is banking, investment and other financial services provided by banks and financial institutions primarily serving high-net-worth individuals (HNWIs)—defined as those with very high levels of income or sizable assets. A bank that ...
, providing wealth management services to high-net-worth individuals and families;
* investment banking, relating to activities on the financial markets.
Most banks are profit-making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by the government, or are non-profit organization, non-profit organisations.
Types of banks
* Commercial banks: the term used for a normal bank to distinguish it from an investment bank. After the Great Depression, the U.S. Congress required that banks only engage in banking activities, whereas investment banks were limited to capital market activities. Since the two no longer have to be under separate ownership, some use the term "commercial bank" to refer to a bank or a division of a bank that mostly deals with deposits and loans from corporations or large businesses.
* Community banks: locally operated financial institutions that empower employees to make local decisions to serve their customers and partners.
* Community development banks: regulated banks that provide financial services and credit to under-served markets or populations.
* Land development banks: The special banks providing long-term loans are called land development banks (LDB). The history of LDB is quite old. The first LDB was started at Jhang in Punjab in 1920. The main objective of the LDBs is to promote the development of land, agriculture and increase the agricultural production. The LDBs provide long-term finance to members directly through their branches.
* Credit unions or Cooperative banking, co-operative banks: not-for-profit cooperatives owned by the depositors and often offering rates more favourable than for-profit banks. Typically, membership is restricted to employees of a particular company, residents of a defined area, members of a certain labor union, union or religious organisations, and their immediate families.
* Postal savings system, Postal savings banks: savings banks associated with national postal systems.
* Private banking, Private banks: banks that manage the assets of high-net-worth individuals. Historically a minimum of US$1 million was required to open an account, however, over the last years, many private banks have lowered their entry hurdles to US$350,000 for private investors.
* Offshore banks: banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation. Many offshore banks are essentially private banks.
* Savings banks: in Europe, savings banks took their roots in the 19th or sometimes even in the 18th century. Their original objective was to provide easily accessible savings products to all strata of the population. In some countries, savings banks were created on public initiative; in others, socially committed individuals created foundations to put in place the necessary infrastructure. Nowadays, European savings banks have kept their focus on retail banking: payments, savings products, credits, and insurances for individuals or small and medium-sized enterprises. Apart from this retail focus, they also differ from commercial banks by their broadly decentralised distribution network, providing local and regional outreach – and by their socially responsible approach to business and society.
* Building societies and Landesbanks: institutions that conduct retail banking.
* Ethical banks: banks that prioritize the transparency of all operations and make only what they consider to be socially responsible investments.
* A Direct bank, direct or internet-only bank is a banking operation without any physical bank branches. Transactions are usually accomplished using Automated teller machine, ATMs and Electronic funds transfer, electronic transfers and direct deposits through an online interface.
Types of investment banks
* Investment banks "underwrite" (guarantee the sale of) stock and bond issues, provide investment management, and advise corporations on capital market activities such as M&A, trade for their own accounts, make markets, provide Securities Services, securities services to institutional clients.
* Merchant banks were traditionally banks which engaged in trade finance
Trade finance is a phrase used to describe different strategies that are employed to make international trade easier. It signifies financing for trade, and it concerns both domestic and international trade transactions. A trade transaction require ...
. The modern definition, however, refers to banks which provide capital to firms in the form of shares rather than loans. Unlike venture caps, they tend not to invest in new companies.
Combination banks
* Universal banks, more commonly known as financial services companies, engage in several of these activities. These big banks are very diversified groups that, among other services, also distribute insurance – hence the term bancassurance, a portmanteau, portmanteau word combining "banque or bank" and "assurance", signifying that both banking and insurance are provided by the same corporate entity.
Other types of banks
* Central banks are normally government-owned and charged with quasi-regulatory responsibilities, such as supervising commercial banks, or controlling the cash interest rate. They generally provide liquidity to the banking system and act as the lender of last resort in event of a crisis.
* Islamic banks adhere to the concepts of Sharia, Islamic law. This form of banking revolves around several well-established principles based on Islamic laws. All banking activities must avoid interest, a concept that is forbidden in Islam. Instead, the bank earns profit (Markup (business), markup) and fees on the financing facilities that it extends to customers.
Challenges within the banking industry
United States
The United States banking industry is one of the most heavily regulated and guarded in the world, with multiple specialised and focused regulators. All banks with FDIC-insured deposits have the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as a regulator. However, for soundness examinations (i.e., whether a bank is operating in a sound manner), the Federal Reserve is the primary federal regulator for Fed-member state banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is the primary federal regulator for national banks. State non-member banks are examined by the state agencies as well as the FDIC. National banks have one primary regulator – the OCC.
Each regulatory agency has its own set of rules and regulations to which banks and thrifts must adhere.
The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC) was established in 1979 as a formal inter-agency body empowered to prescribe uniform principles, standards, and report forms for the federal examination of financial institutions. Although the FFIEC has resulted in a greater degree of regulatory consistency between the agencies, the rules and regulations are constantly changing.
In addition to changing regulations, changes in the industry have led to consolidations within the Federal Reserve, FDIC, OTS, and OCC. Offices have been closed, supervisory regions have been merged, staff levels have been reduced and budgets have been cut. The remaining regulators face an increased burden with an increased workload and more banks per regulator. While banks struggle to keep up with the changes in the regulatory environment, regulators struggle to manage their workload and effectively regulate their banks. The impact of these changes is that banks are receiving less hands-on assessment by the regulators, less time spent with each institution, and the potential for more problems slipping through the cracks, potentially resulting in an overall increase in bank failures across the United States.
The changing economic environment has a significant impact on banks and thrifts as they struggle to effectively manage their interest rate spread in the face of low rates on loans, rate competition for deposits and the general market changes, industry trends and economic fluctuations. It has been a challenge for banks to effectively set their growth strategies with the recent economic market. A rising interest rate environment may seem to help financial institutions, but the effect of the changes on consumers and businesses is not predictable and the challenge remains for banks to grow and effectively manage the spread to generate a return to their shareholders.
The management of the banks’ asset portfolios also remains a challenge in today's economic environment. Loans are a bank's primary asset category and when loan quality becomes suspect, the foundation of a bank is shaken to the core. While always an issue for banks, declining asset quality has become a big problem for financial institutions.
There are several reasons for this, one of which is the lax attitude some banks have adopted because of the years of “good times.” The potential for this is exacerbated by the reduction in the regulatory oversight of banks and in some cases depth of management. Problems are more likely to go undetected, resulting in a significant impact on the bank when they are discovered. In addition, banks, like any business, struggle to cut costs and have consequently eliminated certain expenses, such as adequate employee training programs.
Banks also face a host of other challenges such as ageing ownership groups. Across the country, many banks’ management teams and boards of directors are ageing. Banks also face ongoing pressure from shareholders, both public and private, to achieve earnings and growth projections. Regulators place added pressure on banks to manage the various categories of risk. Banking is also an extremely competitive industry. Competing in the financial services industry has become tougher with the entrance of such players as insurance agencies, credit unions, cheque cashing services, credit card companies, etc.
As a reaction, banks have developed their activities in financial instruments, through financial market operations such as brokerage firm, brokerage and have become big players in such activities.
Another major challenge is the ageing infrastructure, also called legacy IT. Backend systems were built decades ago and are incompatible with new applications. Fixing bugs and creating interfaces costs huge sums, as knowledgeable programmers become scarce.
Loan activities of banks
To be able to provide home buyers and builders with the funds needed, banks must compete for deposits. The phenomenon of disintermediation had to dollars moving from savings accounts and into direct market instruments such as United States Department of the Treasury, U.S. Department of Treasury obligations, agency securities, and corporate debt. One of the greatest factors in recent years in the movement of deposits was the tremendous growth of money market funds whose higher interest rates attracted consumer deposits.
To compete for deposits, US savings institutions offer many different types of plans:
* Passbook or ordinary deposit accounts – permit any amount to be added to or withdrawn from the account at any time.
* NOW and Super NOW accounts – function like checking accounts but earn interest. A minimum balance may be required on Super NOW accounts.
* Money market accounts – carry a monthly limit of preauthorised transfers to other accounts or persons and may require a minimum or average balance.
* Certificate accounts – subject to loss of some or all interest on withdrawals before maturity.
* Notice accounts – the equivalent of certificate accounts with an indefinite term. Savers agree to notify the institution a specified time before withdrawal.
* Individual retirement accounts (IRAs) and Keogh plans – a form of retirement savings in which the funds deposited and interest earned are exempt from income tax until after withdrawal.
* Checking accounts – offered by some institutions under definite restrictions.
* All withdrawals and deposits are completely the sole decision and responsibility of the account owner unless the parent or guardian is required to do otherwise for legal reasons.
* Club accounts and other savings accounts – designed to help people save regularly to meet certain goals.
Types of accounts
Bank statements are accounting records produced by banks under the various accounting standards of the world. Under Generally accepted accounting principles, GAAP there are two kinds of accounts: debit and credit. Credit accounts are Revenue, Equity and Liabilities. Debit Accounts are Assets and Expenses. The bank credits a ''credit account'' to increase its balance, and debits a ''credit account'' to decrease its balance.
The customer debits his or her savings/bank (asset) account in his ledger when making a deposit (and the account is normally in debit), while the customer credits a credit card (liability) account in his ledger every time he spends money (and the account is normally in credit). When the customer reads his bank statement, the statement will show a credit to the account for deposits, and debits for withdrawals of funds. The customer with a positive balance will see this balance reflected as a credit balance on the bank statement. If the customer is overdrawn, he will have a negative balance, reflected as a debit balance on the bank statement.
Brokered deposits
One source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on behalf of investors through trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "hot money" as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the financial crisis of 2007–2008, global financial crisis had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits. There are different types of accounts: saving, recurring and current accounts.
Custodial accounts
Custodial accounts are accounts in which assets are held for a third party. For example, businesses that accept custody of funds for clients prior to their conversion, return, or transfer may have a custodial account at a bank for these purposes.
Globalisation in the banking industry
In modern times there have been huge reductions to the barriers of global competition in the banking industry. Increases in telecommunications and other financial technologies, such as Bloomberg Terminal, Bloomberg, have allowed banks to extend their reach all over the world since they no longer have to be near customers to manage both their finances and their risk. The growth in cross-border activities has also increased the demand for banks that can provide various services across borders to different nationalities.
However, despite these reductions in barriers and growth in cross-border activities, the banking industry is nowhere near as globalised as some other industries. In the US, for instance, very few banks even worry about the Riegle–Neal Act, which promotes more efficient interstate banking. In the vast majority of nations around the globe, the market share for foreign owned banks is currently less than a tenth of all market shares for banks in a particular nation.
One reason the banking industry has not been fully globalised is that it is more convenient to have local banks provide loans to small businesses and individuals. On the other hand, for large corporations, it is not as important in what nation the bank is in since the corporation's financial information is available around the globe.
See also
Terms and concepts:
* Anonymous banking
* Automated teller machine
* Banking
* Banking agent
* Bank regulation
**Banking license
* Bankers' bonuses
* Cash advance
* Credit Card
* Call report
* Cheque
* Coin
* deposit account
* Deposit creation multiplier
* Electronic funds transfer
* Ethical banking
* Factoring (finance)
* Finance
* Fractional-reserve banking
* Full-reserve banking
* IBAN
* Internet banking
* International Bank Account Number
* Investment banking
* Loan
** Pre-qualification
** Pre-approval
** Subprime
* Mobile banking
Mobile banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution that allows its customers to conduct financial transactions remotely using a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet. Unlike the related internet banking it uses ...
* Money
* Money laundering
* Narrow banking
* Overdraft
* Overdraft protection
* Piggy bank
* Pigmy Deposit Scheme
* Private banking
* Soft probe
* Substitute check
* SWIFT
* Tax haven
* Venture capital
* Wealth management
* Wire transfer
Wire transfer, bank transfer, or credit transfer, is a method of electronic funds transfer from one person or entity to another. A wire transfer can be made from one bank account to another bank account, or through a transfer of cash at a cash ...
Types of institutions:
* Bad bank
* Bankers' bank
* Building society
* Central bank
* Cooperative bank
* Credit union
* Ethical bank
* Industrial loan company
* Islamic banking
* Mortgage bank
* Mutual savings bank
* National bank
* Offshore bank
* Person-to-person lending
* Public bank
* Savings and loan association
* Savings bank
* Sparebank
* Zombie bank
Crime:
* Bank fraud
* Bank robbery
* Cheque fraud
* Cyber Crime
* Mortgage fraud
* Usury
Related lists:
* List of largest banks
* List of accounting topics
* List of bank mergers in United States
* List of banks
* List of economics topics
* List of finance topics
* List of largest U.S. bank failures
* List of oldest banks
* List of stock exchanges
Banking by country
* Banking in Australia
* Banking in Austria
* Banking in Bangladesh
* Banking in Belgium
* Banking in Canada
* Banking in China
* Banking in France
* Banking in Germany
* Banking in Greece
* Banking in Hong Kong
* Banking in Iran
* Banking in India
* Banking in Israel
* Banking in Italy
* Japanese financial system, Banking in Japan
* Banking in Pakistan
* Banking in Qatar
* Banking in Russia
* Banking in Spain
* Banking in Singapore
* Banking in Switzerland
* Banking in Tunisia
* Banking in Turkey
* Banking in the United Kingdom
* Banking in the United States
References
Further reading
* Born, Karl Erich. ''International Banking in the 19th and 20th Centuries'' (St Martin's, 1983
online
External links
Guardian Datablog – World's Biggest Banks
from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*
A Guide to the National Banking System
' (PDF). Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), Washington, D.C. Provides an overview of the national banking system of the US, its regulation, and the OCC.
{{Use dmy dates, date=December 2019
Banks,
Banking,
Legal entities
Italian inventions
Economic history of Italy