The Kingdom of Bailundo, also known as Bailundu, Mbailundu or Mbalundu,
is an
Angolan Ovimbundu
The Ovimbundu, also known as the Southern Mbundu, are a Bantu ethnic group who live on the Bié Plateau of central Angola and in the coastal strip west of these highlands. As the largest ethnic group in Angola, they make up 38 percent of the ...
kingdom
Kingdom commonly refers to:
* A monarchy ruled by a king or queen
* Kingdom (biology), a category in biological taxonomy
Kingdom may also refer to:
Arts and media Television
* ''Kingdom'' (British TV series), a 2007 British television drama s ...
based in the modern-day province of
Huambo
Huambo, formerly Nova Lisboa (English: ''New Lisbon''), is the third-most populous city in Angola, after the capital city Luanda and Lubango, with a population of 595,304 in the city and a population of 713,134 in the municipality of Huambo (Cen ...
, in the central highlands of Angola. It was one of the largest and most powerful Ovimbundu kingdoms.
Some news reports state the kingdom was founded in the 15th century,
however oral histories and archival evidence suggest it emerged as a political entity around 1700.
The kingdom was initially called Halavala.
Characteristics
The kingdom has passed through various stages in its history, both as an independent kingdom and as a
vassal state
A vassal state is any state that has a mutual obligation to a superior state or empire, in a status similar to that of a vassal in the feudal system in medieval Europe. Vassal states were common among the empires of the Near East, dating back to ...
of the
Portuguese empire
The Portuguese Empire ( pt, Império Português), also known as the Portuguese Overseas (''Ultramar Português'') or the Portuguese Colonial Empire (''Império Colonial Português''), was composed of the overseas colonies, factories, and the l ...
. Today, it is a
non-sovereign monarchy
A non-sovereign monarchy or constituent monarchy is one in which the head of the monarchical polity (whether a geographic territory or an ethnic group), and the polity itself, are subject to a temporal authority higher than their own. The consti ...
within the
Republic of Angola
, national_anthem = " Angola Avante"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capital = Luanda
, religion =
, religion_year = 2020
, religion_ref =
, coordina ...
, and its rulers are considered community leaders and hold significant influence over local matters.
The current territory of the kingdom contains the municipality of
Bailundo
Bailundo (pre-1975 Vila Teixeira da Silva) is a municipality, with a population of 294,494 (2014), and a town, with a population of 70,481 (2014), in the province of Huambo, Angola.
In the 1990s, Bailundo was the location of the headquarters of ...
, as well as some areas of neighbouring municipalities such as Mungo,
Lounduimbale and Tchicalala. The monarchy's officially recognised role in these extended areas is ambiguous and complex; for example King Ekuikui IV, for certain issues, dealt with four different municipal administrations and four different municipal administrators. In the Bailundo municipality, the king is an integral part of the local municipal council.
Kings are tasked with issuing judgments in a traditional court system, often relating to issues such as land disputes, sexual abuse, theft, and
witchcraft
Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have us ...
.
The king has an official residence known as Ombala yo Mbalundu (considered to be a
cultural heritage
Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by soci ...
site), which contains a palace, 35 residences for sobas (nobles), a school, three laboratories, and a medical centre. The bones of previous kings of Bailundu are also kept here in a cemetery called Akokotos (the skulls are kept separately).
Succession
Succession rules within the kingdom have undergone changes over time. Legitimacy is derived from having "blue blood", or descent from past kings.
In some instances, succession was
hereditary
Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic inform ...
, with the crown passing to the king's son.
Chingui II for example, was the son of Chingui I. In other cases, succession has been passed to the grandsons of a previous king, with Ekuikui V being a grandson of Ekuikui IV, for example.
In 2021, Tchongolola Tchongonga was
elected Elected may refer to:
* "Elected" (song), by Alice Cooper, 1973
* ''Elected'' (EP), by Ayreon, 2008
*The Elected, an American indie rock band
See also
*Election
An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a populatio ...
as king by a council of elders and rulers within the kingdom. Tchongolola Tchongonga is also a grandson of Ekuikui IV.
Ekuikui V, king of Bailundo from 2012 to 2021, explained that the king can only be succeeded by a
matrilineal
Matrilineality is the tracing of kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which each person is identified with their matriline – their mother's Lineage (anthropology), lineage – and which can in ...
nephew of a previous king, or alternatively, a grandson of a previous king.
Throughout the 1900s, succession in the kingdom was subject to interference by outsiders, such as Portuguese authorities or Angolan government officials. In 1982, for example, Benjamin Pesela Tchongolola was appointed king by the local commissioner despite having no royal lineage. During the period of
Angolan Civil War
The Angolan Civil War ( pt, Guerra Civil Angolana) was a civil war in Angola, beginning in 1975 and continuing, with interludes, until 2002. The war immediately began after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975. The war was ...
, the rebel group
UNITA
The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( pt, União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, abbr. UNITA) is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought alongside the Popular Movement for ...
also interfered with the choosing of the kingdom's ruler.
History
Early history
The kingdom was founded by King Katyavala I, who originally came from
Kwanza-sul. According to Ekuikui IV, Katyavala migrated to the area following a dispute. Oral histories state that it was his possession of a rifle, at the time a unique technological advantage among the local population, that allowed him to assert himself as ruler of Halavala and surrounding villages, Tchilapa, Ngola, Ndulu and Viyé.
The second king of Bailundu, Jahulo I, was known for his wars against neighbouring areas such as Cilemo and
Sambo
, aka = Sombo (in English-speaking countries)
, focus = Hybrid
, country = Soviet Union
, pioneers = Viktor Spiridonov, Vasili Oshchepkov, Anatoly Kharlampiev
, famous_pract = List of Practitioners
, oly ...
. His war with Sambo was driven by the desire for more cattle, relocation of populations, and conquest. He also engaged with the local population of Portuguese and
Luso-Africans
Luso-Africans are people of mixed Portuguese and African ancestry who speak Portuguese. The vast majority of Luso-Africans live in former Portuguese Africa, now referred to as ''Lusophone Africa'', comprising the modern countries of Angola, Guinea ...
traders who lived in the principal towns of the highlands. He was said to have taken many "white people" and many "women". Further expansion occurred under succeeding kings, especially north towards Kwanza, where attacks against the provinces of Sumbe, Haku, and Tambo were made. All of these territories were, at the time, Portuguese vassals. These conquests, along with further expansion westwards, seriously threatened the Portuguese. António de Lencastre amassed one of the largest forces the Portuguese had ever put together to invade Bailundo and put an end to these acts of aggression in the Mbailundu War (1773–1776). Ultimately, the war was successful and Chingui, king at the time, was captured and was held in confinement for the rest of his life.
Portuguese era
In 1778, the Portuguese attempted to install Kapangano as ruler. Kapangano, however, was overthrown and Ekuikui I, succeeded him 1780.
The Mbailundu War had restricted the power of the kingdom, and established the kingdom as a Portuguese vassal state. Increasingly, Portuguese merchants became more common in Bailundu and neighbouring lands, and Portugal put in place a local governor to rule with the king (albeit, with limited powers to do so). Ekuikui I and successive monarchs frequently engaged in wars with their neighbours, partially under the guise of protecting Portuguese interests, while extending their own power and capturing peoples to increase the population of the kingdom. Oral traditions suggest captured peoples became slaves of the king, some were sold to merchants while others would eventually be allowed to settle in his lands and become his subjects. In 1785, a Portuguese report noted Bailundu had amassed around 3,800 guns, far more than any other Ovimbundu kingdom.
In 1799, the Portuguese estimated that Bailundo was made up of around 82
Chiefdom
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
s and "dominated" 2,056 villages. The relationship between the Bailundu and Portugal was turbulent, and revolts were common until at least the 1830s.
The height of the kingdom was during the reign of Ekuikui II, from 1876 to 1890. Ekuikui's full regnal name was Ekuikui Cikundiakundia Cipuka Kaliwa la Njila, which translates to "The Larva ''Cikundiakundia'' that Cannot Be Eaten by the Bird" (meaning, "I escaped; I shall not be defeated by anything"). During the peak of his power, surrounding polities in Esele,
Viye
Viye (also known as Bié, Bieno, or Bihe) was one of the traditional Ovimbundu kingdoms, located in the central plateau of Angola. Its capital city was Ecovongo.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, the kingdom was an important crossroads through w ...
, and Bukusu were subservient to Bailundo. In 1881, the American Protestant organisation
ABCFM
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was among the first American Christian missionary organizations. It was created in 1810 by recent graduates of Williams College. In the 19th century it was the largest and most imp ...
, upon invitation from Ekuikui II, established its first
mission station
A Christian mission is an organized effort for the propagation of the Christian faith. Missions involve sending individuals and groups across boundaries, most commonly geographical boundaries, to carry on evangelism or other activities, such as ...
in Bailundo. Missionaries from this group aided, at least in part, in preserving the history of the kingdom and the culture of the surrounding area and people groups. They published manuscripts such as "''The Customs of the Ombala (Capital) of Bailundo''", which detailed the history of the kingdom and culture, as well as "''Umbundu: folk tales''" and other such works.
Ekuikui II is remembered through oral traditions to have been an adept diplomat, who successfully kept Portuguese encroachment in check.
Ekuikui II re-established Bailundu's power in the region and, for the most part, the Portuguese largely accepted the kingdom's independence during his reign – as long as trade was not interrupted. This was despite the fact that Ekuikui repeatedly requested that Portugal station a local Capitão-mor (Portuguese administrator) in his kingdom to elevate his status over his neighbours. The kingdom faced no major wars during the rule of Ekuikui II,
and reached a period of unprecedented economic prosperity – primarily from profits due to the
rubber
Rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, ''caucho'', or ''caoutchouc'', as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Thailand, Malaysia, and ...
trade.
Ekuikui II was succeeded by Numa II. While Ekuikui II largely enjoyed independence from the Portuguese, this would no longer be the case under the reign of Numa II. Portugal re-established their control over the kingdom in the 1890s,
and Numa II was killed by Portuguese Captain Justino Teixeira da Silva. In 1902, a
mass revolt was led by the kingdom against Portuguese authorities, leading to its complete incorporation into
Portuguese Angola
Portuguese Angola refers to Angola during the historic period when it was a territory under Portuguese rule in southwestern Africa. In the same context, it was known until 1951 as Portuguese West Africa (officially the State of West Africa).
I ...
in 1904.
The failure of the revolt led to a loss of political and economic autonomy and sharp reduction in physical territory, transforming the kingdom into a
non-sovereign monarchy
A non-sovereign monarchy or constituent monarchy is one in which the head of the monarchical polity (whether a geographic territory or an ethnic group), and the polity itself, are subject to a temporal authority higher than their own. The consti ...
.
Future kings of Bailundo, while under colonial administration, were significantly limited in the influence they were allowed to wield. They were put in charge of collecting taxes, solving local disputes, maintaining local infrastructure, and similar tasks. Their influence was strictly limited to the boundaries of the local administrative district. If they failed to comply with the tasks they were given by colonial administrators, they would be beaten. This subservience to colonial authorities reduced the prestige and local recognition of Bailundo rulers.
Post-Angolan independence
Following Angola's independence from Portugal, the kingdom would face numerous interferences from the republic's political actors. David Sapata, commissioner of the
Bailundo
Bailundo (pre-1975 Vila Teixeira da Silva) is a municipality, with a population of 294,494 (2014), and a town, with a population of 70,481 (2014), in the province of Huambo, Angola.
In the 1990s, Bailundo was the location of the headquarters of ...
municipality in the late 1970s, aided his friend Benjamin Pesela Tchongolola to become king of Bailundo. This was unusual, as Benjamin was not of royal lineage. Following the death of David in 1979, and appointment of new commissioner, Arão Chitekulu, Benjamin was removed from the throne and replaced by Manuel da Costa (Ekuikui III). Ekuikui also did not carry royal lineage from the throne of Bailundo, however, he was related to the kings of
Luvemba
Luvemba is a town and commune of Angola, located in the province of Huambo.
See also
* Communes of Angola
The Communes of Angola ( pt, comunas) are Administrative division, administrative units in Angola after Municipalities of Angola, muni ...
. During the
Angolan Civil War
The Angolan Civil War ( pt, Guerra Civil Angolana) was a civil war in Angola, beginning in 1975 and continuing, with interludes, until 2002. The war immediately began after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975. The war was ...
, Ekuikui was kidnapped in 1980 by
UNITA
The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( pt, União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, abbr. UNITA) is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought alongside the Popular Movement for ...
rebels and taken to
Jamba. In his place, another king of non-royal lineage was appointed in Bailundo, Augusto Kachytiopololo (
Ekuikui IV Augusto Cachitiopolo, known by the royal title of Ekuikui IV, (c. 1913 – January 14, 2012) was an Angolan royal and politician, who served as the King of Bailundo in Huambo Province. Politically, Cachitiopolo served as a member of the National Ass ...
), under the patronage of Arão Chiteculo. In the 1990s, rebels from UNITA advanced on Bailundo and
Andulo
Andulo is a town and municipality in Bié Province in Angola. The municipality covers an area of , with a Population of 258,161 in 2014. It is bordered to the north by the municipality of Mussende, to the east by the municipalities of Luquembo an ...
and annexed the areas, leading Ekuikui IV to flee Bailundo and head towards
Huambo
Huambo, formerly Nova Lisboa (English: ''New Lisbon''), is the third-most populous city in Angola, after the capital city Luanda and Lubango, with a population of 595,304 in the city and a population of 713,134 in the municipality of Huambo (Cen ...
. Ekuikui III at this point resumed his place on the throne. Ekuikui III died in 1998. UNITA now considered the throne to be vacant and a new king was to be chosen under the influence of UNITA. It was decided to look for a king that was of royal blood. Ultimately, Jeremias Lussati was chosen as he was descended from Utondossi, king of Bailundo in the early 1800s. His
regnal name
A regnal name, or regnant name or reign name, is the name used by monarchs and popes during their reigns and, subsequently, historically. Since ancient times, some monarchs have chosen to use a different name from their original name when they ac ...
was Utondossi II. Following the end of the civil war and the return of Bailundo to the Angolan government's control, Ekuikui IV was reinstated as king of Bailundo.
In 2003, it was reported that Ekuikui IV was considered to be the most powerful of traditional rulers in Angola.
Former king Utondossi II returned to Bailundo sometime between 2003–2005. Traditional authorities were split on whether to recognise Utondossi II or Ekuikui IV as the legitimate ruler of Bailundo. In 2008, Utondossi was attacked and killed in the town of
Lunge.
In 2010, a statue of Ekuikui II was built in Bailundo district.
In January 2012, Ekuikui IV was found dead.
He was succeeded by Ekuikui V.
Ekuikui V sometimes dubbed himself as the "king of (all)
Ovimbundu
The Ovimbundu, also known as the Southern Mbundu, are a Bantu ethnic group who live on the Bié Plateau of central Angola and in the coastal strip west of these highlands. As the largest ethnic group in Angola, they make up 38 percent of the ...
".
In early 2021, Ekuikui V was sentenced to six years in prison by the Provincial Court of Huambo (TPH) for his implication in a murder in 2017.
Ekuikui V had issued a judgment in a traditional court case, finding Jacinto Kamutali Epalangana guilty of killing a child. Following the judgment, Jacinto was beaten to death.
Capital punishment in Angola
Capital punishment in Angola was abolished by constitution in 1992. In 1977, the country carried out its last executions, which were of Nito Alves and many of his supporters, who were convicted of treason. The execution method in Angola was by firi ...
was legally abolished in 1992, and traditional authorities are expected to follow the constitution while making judgments in traditional court systems. In response to the charge, Ekuikui planned a foot march scheduled for March 15th from Bailundo to
Luanda
Luanda () is the capital and largest city in Angola. It is Angola's primary port, and its major industrial, cultural and urban centre. Located on Angola's northern Atlantic coast, Luanda is Angola's administrative centre, its chief seaport ...
to protest his sentence.
On the 3 March, 2021, he was ousted from the throne following a meeting of the Angolan Association of Traditional Authorities (ASSAT).
Ekuikui V had previously claimed to be the president of ASSAT, despite no election confirming him as such. He was accused of various offences, such as forcing a son of his predecessor, Ekuikui IV, to walk around Bailundo naked. He was also accused of witchcraft, concentration of powers, and illegal sales of land. It was elected at the time that João Kawengo Kasanji would replace Ekuikui V as king, and that he would take the regnal name of Tchingala TChangungu Vangalule Mbulu. Ekuikui refused to accept the decision to remove him from the throne, and denied all of the aforementioned accusations.
In March 2021, it was announced that Isaac Francisco Lucas Somaquesenje had been installed as king of Bailundo, with the regnal name Tchongolola Tchongonga. The enthronement ceremony was attended by the provincial governor and other guests. Part of the ceremony included the newly-appointed king sitting at the entrance of his official residence and collecting a basket containing white cornmeal (omemba). This was then fed to an animal which was later sacrificed. The king later received a sword (ondelia), signifying his traditional power. Tchongolola Tchongonga is a grandson of the former king, Ekuikui IV. He was elected to the throne by the court of Ombala (a council of elders
) in May 2021, receiving 153 votes out of a total of 206 voters. João Kawengo Kasanji in contrast, only received 31 votes.
Bailundo Monarchs
The known list of Bailundo monarchs is as follows:
[Most of the information, including dates, in this king list was provided by Ekuikui IV and represents a sort of 'official' listing. Utondossi II, notably, is not included in the official list due to a dispute over his legitimacy versus that of Ekuikui IV.][ John K. Thornton's "''A History of West Central Africa To 1850''" presents a different chronology from what is found on Ekuikui IV's official king list. Katyavala, for example, is said to reign until 1730. It's unclear which is more accurate.]
* Katyavala I (~1700–1720)
* Jahulo I (~1720–?)
* Samandalu (1771–1774)
* Chingui (1774–1776)
* Chingui II (1776–1778)
* Kapangano (1778–1780)
* Elanga Ngongo, Ekuikui the Elder I (1780
–1800)
* Numa I (1800–1800)
* Hundungulo I (1800–1810)
* Tchissende the Elder I (1810–1811)
* Jungulo (1811–1818)
* Gunji (1818–1818)
* Tchivukuvuku Tchama Tchongonga (1818–1818)
* Utondossi (1818–1832)
* Bonji (1833–1842)
* Bongue (1842–1861)
* Tchissende II (1816–1869)
* Vassovava (1869–1872)
* Katiavala II (1872–1875)
* Ekongoliohombo (1875–1876)
* Ekuikui II Cikundiakundia Cipuka Kaliwa la Njila (1876–1890)
* Numa II (1890–1892/1896)
[Sources give two dates for the end of his reign.]
* Morna (1895–1896)
* Kangovi (1897–1898)
* Hundungulo II (1898–1900)
* Kalandula (1900–1902)
* Mutu-ya-Kevela (1902–1903)
* Tchissende III (1904–1911)
* Jahulo II (1911–1935)
* Mussitu (1935–1938)
* Tchinendele (1938–1948)
* Filipe Kapoko (1948–1970)
* Félix Numa Candimba (1970–1977/1982)
* Benjamin Pesela Tchongolola (1982–1985)
* Manuel da Costa, Ekuikui III (1977–1980, 1992–1998)
[Alternate source suggests the dates 1985–1996.]
* Augusto Kachytiopololo, Ekuikui IV (1980–?, 2002–2012)
* Utondossi II (1996–1999, 2003/5–2008)
* Armindo Francisco Kalupeteka, Ekuikui V (2012–2021)
* Isaac Francisco Lucas Somaquesenje, Tchongolola Tchongonga (2021–present)
See also
*
Baixa de Cassanje
Baixa de Cassanje, also called Baixa de Kassanje is a non-sovereign kingdom in Angola. Kambamba Kulaxingo was its king until his death in 2006.
Presently, Dianhenga Aspirante Mjinji Kulaxingo serves as the king.
History
The region of Baixa de C ...
*
Cingolo
Cingolo (also known as Quingolo) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
In 1774-6, Cingolo fought a war against the Portuguese alongside Bailundu.
See also
* Citata
* Civula
* Ciyaka
* Ekekete
* Kakonda
* Kalukembe
...
*
Citata
Citata (also known as Quitata) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola
, national_anthem = " Angola Avante"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capital = Luanda
, ...
*
Civula Civula (also known as Quibula) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
See also
*Cingolo
Cingolo (also known as Quingolo) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
In 1774-6, Cingolo fough ...
*
Ciyaka
Overview
Ciyaka (also known as Quiyaca or Quiaca) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
See also
*Cingolo
*Civula Civula (also known as Quibula) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola. ...
*
Ekekete Overview
Ekekete (also known as Quiquete) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
See also
*Cingolo
*Civula
*Ciyaka
Overview
Ciyaka (also known as Quiyaca or Quiaca) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu ...
*
Kakonda
Kakonda (also known as Cilombo-coñoma, Caconda, or Quilombo) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola
, national_anthem = " Angola Avante"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, c ...
*
Kalukembe
Kalukembe (also known as Caluquembe, Caluguembe, or Caluqueme) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola
, national_anthem = " Angola Avante"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, c ...
*
Mbunda Kingdom
The Mbunda Kingdom ( Mbunda: ''Chiundi ca Mbunda'' or ''Vumwene vwa Chiundi'' or Portuguese: ''Reino dos Bundas'') was an African kingdom located in west central Africa, what is now south-east Angola. At its greatest extent, it reached from Mit ...
*
Kingdom of Ndulu
Ndulu (also known as Andulo, Ondulu or Ondura) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
See also
*Cingolo
*Civula
*Ciyaka
*Ekekete Overview
Ekekete (also known as Quiquete) was one of the traditional independent Ovim ...
*
Kingdom of Ndongo
The Kingdom of Ndongo, formerly known as Angola or Dongo, was an early-modern African state located in what is now Angola.
The Kingdom of Ndongo is first recorded in the sixteenth century. It was one of multiple vassal states to Kongo, though ...
*
Ngalangi
*
Viye
Viye (also known as Bié, Bieno, or Bihe) was one of the traditional Ovimbundu kingdoms, located in the central plateau of Angola. Its capital city was Ecovongo.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, the kingdom was an important crossroads through w ...
{{div col end
Notes
References
1700s establishments in Africa
Ovimbundu kingdoms
Non-sovereign monarchy