Americanist Phonetic Notation

Americanist phonetic notation, also known as the North American Phonetic Alphabet (NAPA), the Americanist Phonetic Alphabet or the American Phonetic Alphabet (APA), is a system of phonetic notation originally developed by European and American anthropologists and language scientists (many of whom were students of Neogrammarians) for the phonetic and phonemic transcription of indigenous languages of the Americas and for languages of Europe. It is still commonly used by linguists working on, among others, Slavic, Uralic, Semitic languages and for the languages of the Caucasus and of India; however, Uralists commonly use a variant known as the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet.

Despite its name, the term "Americanist phonetic alphabet" has always been widely used outside the Americas. For example, a version of it is the standard for the transcription of Arabic in articles published in the , the journal of the German Oriental Society.

Diacritics are widely used in Americanist notation. Unlike the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which seeks to use as few diacritics as possible for phonemic distinctions, restricting diacritics to phonetic detail, the Americanist notation relies on diacritics for basic consonants and vowels.

Summary contrast with the IPA alphabet

Certain symbols in NAPA were once identical to those of the International Phonetic Alphabet, but have become obsolete in the latter, such as . Over the years, NAPA has drawn closer to the IPA. This can be seen, for example, in a comparison of Edward Sapir's earlier and later works. However, there remain significant differences. Among these are:

* for , for , or for , for and for
*Palato-alveolar and sometimes alveopalatal
*Advancing diacritic (inverted breve) for dentals and palatals (apart from non-sibilant dental ), and retracting diacritic (a dot) for retroflex and uvulars (apart from uvular )
* or for a flap and for a trill
* Ogonek for nasalization
*Dot over vowel for centering, two dots (diaeresis) over a vowel to change fronting (for front rounded vowels and unrounded back vowels)
*Acute and grave accents over vowels for stress

History

John Wesley Powell used an early set of phonetic symbols in his publications (particularly Powell 1880) on American language families, although he chose symbols which had their origins in work by other phoneticians and American writers (''e.g.'', Pickering 1820; Cass 1821a, 1821b; Hale 1846; Lepsius 1855, 1863; Gibbs 1861; and Powell 1877). The influential anthropologist Franz Boas used a somewhat different set of symbols (Boas 1911). In 1916, a publication by the American Anthropological Society greatly expanded upon Boas's alphabet. This same alphabet was discussed and modified in articles by Bloomfield & Bolling (1927) and Herzog ''et al.'' (1934). The Americanist notation may be seen in the journals ''American Anthropologist'', '' International Journal of American Linguistics'', and ''Language''. Useful sources explaining the symbols – some with comparisons of the alphabets used at different times – are Campbell (1997:xii-xiii), Goddard (1996:10–16), Langacker (1972:xiii-vi), Mithun (1999:xiii-xv), and Odden (2005).

It is often useful to compare the Americanist tradition with another widespread tradition, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Americanist phonetic notation does not require a strict harmony among character styles: letters from the Greek and Latin alphabets are used side-by-side. Another contrasting feature is that, to represent some of the same sounds, the Americanist tradition relies heavily on letters modified with diacritics; whereas the IPA, which reserves diacritics for other specific uses, gave Greek and Latin letters new shapes. These differing approaches reflect the traditions' differing philosophies. The Americanist linguists were interested in a phonetic notation that could be easily created from typefaces of existing orthographies. This was seen as more practical and more cost-efficient, as many of the characters chosen already existed in Greek and East European orthographies.

Abercrombie (1991:44–45) recounts the following concerning the Americanist tradition:

Alphabet

Consonants

There is no central authority. The Western Institute for Endangered Language Documentation (WIELD) recommends the following conventions:WIELD's Recommended Americanist Transcription System
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Advanced is and retracted is . Geminate is or . Glottalization is e.g. or (ejectives are not distinguished from other types of glottalization).
Palatalization is written . Labialization, velarization, aspiration, voicelessness and prenasalization are as in the IPA. Pharyngeals, epiglottals and glottals are as in the IPA, as are implosives and clicks.

Notes:
* Among the dental fricatives, are slit fricatives (non-sibilant) while are sulcalized (sibilant).

Rhotics table

Most languages only have one phonemic rhotic consonant (only about 18% of the world's languages have more than one rhotic). As a result, rhotic consonants are generally transcribed with the character. This usage is common practice in Americanist and also other notational traditions (such as the IPA). This lack of detail, although economical and phonologically sound, requires a more careful reading of a given language's phonological description to determine the precise phonetics. A list of rhotics is given below.

Other flaps are etc.

Common alternate symbols

There are many alternate symbols seen in Americanist transcription. Below are some equivalent symbols matched with the symbols shown in the consonant chart above.

* ʸ may be used for fronted velars (e.g., kʸ = k̯, gʸ = g̑)
* Some transcriptions superscript the onset of doubly articulated consonants and the release of fricatives, e.g. , .
* There may be a distinction between laminal retroflex and apical retroflex in some transcriptions.
* The fronting diacritic may be a caret rather than an inverted breve, e.g. dental and palatal .
*Many researchers use the x- caron (x̌) for the voiceless uvular fricative.

The use of the standard IPA belted l (ɬ) for the voiceless lateral fricative is becoming increasingly common.

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows. There was, however, little standardization of rhotics, and may be either retroflex or uvular, though as noted above or may be a retroflex flap vs as a uvular trill. Apart from the ambiguity of the rhotics below, and minor graphic variants (ȼ g γ for c ɡ ɣ and the placement of the diacritic in g̑ γ̑), this is compatible with the WIELD recommendations. Only precomposed affricates are shown below; others may be indicated by digraphs (e.g. ).

Ejectives and implosives follow the same conventions as in the IPA, apart from the ejective apostrophe being placed above the base letter.

Pike

Pike (1947) provides the following set of symbols:

Voiceless, voiced and syllabic consonants may also be C̥, C̬ and C̩, as in IPA. Aspirated consonants are C or C̥ʰ / C̬ʱ. Non-audible release is indicated with superscripting, V^C.

Fortis is C͈ and lenis C᷂. Labialization is C̮ or Cʷ; palatalization is Ꞔ, C⁽ⁱ⁾ or Cʸ; velarization is C⁽ᵘ⁾, and pharyngealization is C̴.

Other airstream mechanisms are pulmonic ingressive C^←, ejective Cˀ, implosive Cˤ, click C˂, and lingual ejective (spurt) C˃.

''Anthropos''

The journal '' Anthropos'' published the alphabet to be used in their articles in 1907. Although European, it is the same basic system that Sapir and Boas introduced to the United States. Transcription is italic, without other delimiters.

Palatalized consonants are written with an acute – ' etc. Semivowels are ' etc.

Vowels

WIELD recommends the following conventions. It doesn't provide characters for distinctions that aren't attested in the literature:

No distinction is made between front and central for the lowest unrounded vowels. Diphthongs are e.g. or , depending on phonological analysis. Nasal vowels are e.g. . Long vowels are e.g. . A three-way length distinction may be or . Primary and secondary stress are e.g. and . Voicelessness is e.g. , as in the IPA. Creak, murmur, rhoticity et al. are as in the IPA.

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows:

Pike

Pike (1947) presents the following:

Nasalization is V̨ or Vⁿ. A long vowel is V꞉ or Vꞏ; half-long is V‧ (raised dot). Positional variants are fronted V˂, backed V˃, raised V˄ and lowered V˅.

''Anthropos''

Vowels are inconsistent between languages. ' etc. may be used for unrounded central vowels, and the -based letters are poorly defined, with height and rounding confounded.

There are actually three heights of low front and back vowels. ' is also seen for a low back vowel.

Reduced (obscure) vowels are ' etc. There are also extra-high vowels ' etc.

Bloch & Trager

Bloch & Trager (1942) proposed the following schema, which was never used. They use a single dot for central vowels and a dieresis to reverse backness. The only central vowels with their own letters are , which already has a dot, and , which would not be distinct if formed with a dot.

Kurath

Kurath (1939) is as follows. Enclosed in parentheses are rounded vowels. Apart from and some differences in alignment, it is essentially the IPA.

Chomsky & Halle

Chomsky & Halle (1968) proposed the following schema, which was hardly ever used. In addition to the table, there was for an unstressed reduced vowel.

Tone and prosody

Pike (1947) provides the following tone marks:

*High: V́ or V¹
*Mid: V̍ or V²
*Norm: V̄ or V³
*Low: V̀ or V⁴

Stress is primary ˈCV or V́ and secondary ˌCV or V̀.

Short or intermediate and long or final 'pauses' are , , , , , as in IPA.

Syllable division is CV.CV, as in IPA, and morpheme boundaries are CV-CV.

Historical charts of 1916

The following charts were agreed by committee of the American Anthropological Association in 1916.

The vowel chart is based on the classification of H. Sweet. The high central vowels are differentiated by moving the centralizing dot to the left rather than with a cross stroke. IPA equivalents are given in a few cases that may not be clear.

Notes:
* ''surd'' = voiceless; ''sonant'' = voiced; ''intermed.'' = partially voiced
* In the ''glottalized stop'' column, the phonetic symbol appearing on the left side (which is a consonant plus an overhead single quotation mark) represents a weakly glottalized stop (i.e. weakly ejective). The symbol on the right side is strongly glottalized (i.e. it is articulated very forcefully). Example: = weakly glottalized, = strongly glottalized. (Cf. = followed by glottal stop.) This convention is only shown for the glottalized stops, but may be used for any of the glottalized consonants.
* "Laryngeal" refers to either pharyngeal or epiglottal.

Variation between authors

Following are symbols that differ among well-known Americanist sources.Sturtevant, ''Handbook of North American Indians'', vol. 17, 1978, p. 12''ff''

See also

* Phonetic transcription
* International Phonetic Alphabet
* English Phonetic Alphabet
* Uralic Phonetic Alphabet
* Teuthonista
* Phonetics
* Phonology

References

External links

Recommendations of WIELD for Americanist notation

Bibliography

* Abercrombie, David. (1991). Daniel Jones's teaching. In D. Abercrombie, ''Fifty years in phonetics: Selected papers'' (pp. 37–47). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. (Original work published 1985 in V. A. Fromkin (Ed.), ''Phonetic linguistics: Essays in honor of Peter Ladefoged'', Orlando, Academic Press, Inc.).
* Albright, Robert W. (1958). ''The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its background and development''. International journal of American linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University research center in anthropology, folklore, and linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953).
* American Anthropological Society oas, Franz; Goddard, Pliny E.; Sapir, Edward; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1916)
''Phonetic transcription of Indian languages: Report of committee of American Anthropological Association''. Smithsonian miscellaneous collections (Vol. 66, No. 6).
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution (American Anthropological Society).
* Bloomfield, Leonard; & Bolling George Melville. (1927). What symbols shall we use? ''Language'', ''3'' (2), 123–129.
* Boas, Franz. (1911). Introduction. In F. Boas (Ed.), ''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (pp. 5–83). Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 40). Washington. (Reprinted 1966).
* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. .
* Clark, John; & Yallop, Colin. (1995). ''An introduction to phonetics and phonology'' (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. .
* Odden, David. (2005). ''Introducing phonology''. Cambridge University Press. (hbk); (pbk).
* Goddard, Ives. (1996). Introduction. In I. Goddard (Ed.), ''Handbook of North American Indians: Languages'' (Vol. 17, pp. 1–16). (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. .
* Herzog, George; Newman, Stanley S.; Sapir, Edward; Swadesh, Mary Haas; Swadesh, Morris; Voegelin, Charles F. (1934). Some orthographic recommendations. ''American Anthropologist'', ''36'' (4), 629–631.
* Hill, Kenneth C. (1988). eview of ''Phonetic symbol guide'' by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw ''Language'', ''64'' (1), 143–144.
* International Phonetic Association. (1949). ''The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages''. London: University College, Department of Phonetics.
* Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic transcription: History. In R. E. Asher & J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), ''The encyclopedia of language and linguistics'' (Vol. 6, pp. 3040–3051). Oxford: Pergamon.
* Langacker, Ronald W. (1972). ''Fundamentals of linguistic analysis''. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
* MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). Phonetic notation. In P. T. Daniels & W. Bright (Ed.), ''The world's writing systems'' (pp. 821–846). New York: Oxford University Press. .
* Maddieson, Ian. (1984). ''Patterns of sounds''. Cambridge studies in speech science and communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (hbk); .
* Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). ''Phonetics: A critical analysis of phonetic theory and a technic for the practical description of sounds''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* ———— (1947) ''Phonemics: A Technique for Reducing Languages to Writing''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* Powell, John W. (1880). Introduction to the Study of Indian languages, with words, phrases, and sentences to be collected (2nd Ed.). Washington: Government Printing Office.
* Pullum, Geoffrey K.; & Laduslaw, William A. (1986). ''Phonetic symbol guide''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. .
* Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). ''Handbook of North American Indians'' (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).

{{Writings systems of the Americas

Phonetic alphabets