Alam al-Din
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The Alam al-Dins, also spelled Alamuddin or Alameddine, were a Druze family that intermittently held or contested the
paramount chief A paramount chief is the English-language designation for the highest-level political leader in a regional or local polity or country administered politically with a chief-based system. This term is used occasionally in anthropological and ar ...
tainship of the Druze districts of Mount Lebanon in opposition to the Ma'n and Shihab families in the late 17th–early 18th centuries during Ottoman rule. Their origins were obscure with different accounts claiming or proposing
Tanukhid The Tanûkhids ( ar, التنوخيون, transl=al-Tanūḫiyyūn) or Tanukh ( ar, تنوخ, translit=Tanūḫ) or Banū Tanūkh (, romanized as: ) were a confederation of Arab tribes, sometimes characterized as Saracens. They first rose to prom ...
or Ma'nid ancestry. From at least the early 17th century they were the traditional leaders of the Yaman faction among the Druzes, which stood in opposition to the Qays, led by the Tanukhid
Buhturs The Buhturids, also known as the Banu Buhtur or the Tanukh, were a dynasty whose chiefs served as the emirs (commanders) of the Gharb area southeast of Beirut in Mount Lebanon in the 12th–15th centuries. A branch of the Tanukhid tribal confedera ...
, traditional chiefs of the Gharb area south of
Beirut Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
, and the Ma'ns. A likely chief of the family, Muzaffar al-Andari, led the Druze opposition to the powerful Ma'nid leader
Fakhr al-Din II Fakhr al-Din ibn Qurqumaz Ma'n ( ar, فَخْر ٱلدِّين بِن قُرْقُمَاز مَعْن, Fakhr al-Dīn ibn Qurqumaz Maʿn; – March or April 1635), commonly known as Fakhr al-Din II or Fakhreddine II ( ar, فخر الدين ال ...
until reconciling with him in 1623. The Alam al-Dins' first definitive appearance in the historical record was in 1633 under their chief Ali, who was appointed by the Ottomans to replace Fakhr al-Din as the tax farmer and paramount chief of the Druze districts. Ali soon after exterminated the Ma'ns' Buhturid allies. Although he lost control of the
Chouf Chouf (also spelled Shouf, Shuf or Chuf, in ''Jabal ash-Shouf''; french: La Montagne du Chouf) is a historic region of Lebanon, as well as an administrative district in the governorate (muhafazat) of Mount Lebanon. Geography Located south-east ...
district to the Ma'ns in 1636, Ali retained control of the remaining Druze districts of the Gharb, Jurd and Matn until his death in 1660. He was succeeded by his sons Muhammad and Mansur, who lost the districts to the Ma'ns under Fakhr al-Din's grandnephew
Ahmad Ahmad ( ar, أحمد, ʾAḥmad) is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other spellings of the name include Ahmed and Ahmet. Etymology The word derives from the root (ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from the ve ...
in 1667. The family retired to Damascus or the Hauran and, under Muhammad's son Musa, unsuccessfully attempted to recapture the chieftainship of the Mount Lebanon Druze in 1693, 1698 and 1711. On the last occasion, they were defeated and killed by the Shihabs and the Qays at the Battle of Ain Dara. Before the end of the 18th century, surviving members of the family relocated to
Baaqlin Baakleen or Baakline ( ar, بعقلين) is a major Druze town located in Mount Lebanon, Chouf District, 45 kilometers southeast of Beirut. Altitude 850 – 920 meters high, population is 30,000, area 14 square km, number of homes 2,870. Bord ...
in the Chouf, while others settled in
Hasbaya Hasbeya or Hasbeiya ( ar, حاصبيا) is a town in Lebanon, situated at the foot of Mount Hermon, overlooking a deep amphitheatre from which a brook flows to the Hasbani. In 1911, the population was about 5000. Hasbaya is the capital of the Wa ...
in
Wadi al-Taym Wadi al-Taym ( ar, وادي التيم, Wādī al-Taym), also transliterated as Wadi el-Taym, is a wadi (dry river) that forms a large fertile valley in Lebanon, in the districts of Rachaya and Hasbaya on the western slopes of Mount Hermon. It ad ...
and Suwayda in the Hauran.


Origins

The origins of the Alam al-Din family are uncertain. The historian
Kamal Salibi Kamal Suleiman Salibi ( ar , كمال سليمان الصليبي ) (2 May 19291 September 2011)
proposed that the family was possibly descended from Alam al-Din Sulayman, one of a number of chiefs of the Druze
Ma'n dynasty The Ma'n dynasty ( ar, ٱلْأُسْرَةُ ٱلْمَعْنِيَّةُ, Banū Maʿn, alternatively spelled ''Ma'an''), also known as the Ma'nids; ( ar, ٱلْمَعْنِيُّونَ), were a family of Druze chiefs of Arab stock based in the ...
mentioned by the local Druze chronicler
Ibn Sibat Ḥamza ibn Aḥmad ibn Sibāṭ al-Faqīh al-ʿĀlayhī () (died 1520) was a Druze historian and a scribe of the Buhturid emirs of Mount Lebanon. Life and work Hamza was based in Aley in the Gharb area southeast of Beirut in Mount Lebanon. His ...
(d. 1521) as a chieftain of the
Chouf Chouf (also spelled Shouf, Shuf or Chuf, in ''Jabal ash-Shouf''; french: La Montagne du Chouf) is a historic region of Lebanon, as well as an administrative district in the governorate (muhafazat) of Mount Lebanon. Geography Located south-east ...
in 1518; the other Ma'nid chief was Qurqumaz ibn Yunis, the ancestor of
Fakhr al-Din II Fakhr al-Din ibn Qurqumaz Ma'n ( ar, فَخْر ٱلدِّين بِن قُرْقُمَاز مَعْن, Fakhr al-Dīn ibn Qurqumaz Maʿn; – March or April 1635), commonly known as Fakhr al-Din II or Fakhreddine II ( ar, فخر الدين ال ...
. Salibi argued that the omission of Alam al-Din Sulayman from later local histories, namely the works of Ahmad al-Khalidi (d. 1624) and
Istifan al-Duwayhi Estephan El Douaihy ( ar, اسطفانوس الثاني بطرس الدويهي / ALA-LC: ''Isṭifānūs al-thānī Buṭrus al-Duwayhī''; french: Étienne Douaihi; la, Stephanus Dovaihi; it, Stefano El Douaihy; August 2, 1630 – May 3, 1704) ...
(d. 1704) was due to those historians close association with the Ma'nid descendants of Qurqumaz, who may have sought to void competing Alam al-Din claims to the paramount leadership of the Druze enjoyed by the Qurqumaz line. The 19th-century local histories of Haydar al-Shihabi and
Tannus al-Shidyaq Tannus ibn Yusuf al-Shidyaq ( – 1861), also transliterated ''Tannous el-Chidiac'', was a Maronite clerk and emissary of the Shihab emirs, the feudal chiefs and tax farmers of Ottoman Mount Lebanon, and a chronicler best known for his work on th ...
, the first a member and the second an agent of the Ma'n's marital relatives and successors, the
Shihab dynasty The Shihab dynasty (alternatively spelled Chehab; ar, الشهابيون, ALA-LC: ''al-Shihābiyūn'') was an Arab family whose members served as the paramount tax farmers and local chiefs of Mount Lebanon from the early 18th to mid-19th centu ...
, may have had a similar interest in omitting the Alam al-Dins' possible Ma'nid origins. The Alam al-Dins posed a serious challenge to the Shihabs' paramount leadership of the Druze in Mount Lebanon until the demise of the Alam al-Dins in 1711. Shidyaq traced the origins of the Alam al-Dins to a certain 14th-century
Tanukh The Tanûkhids ( ar, التنوخيون, transl=al-Tanūḫiyyūn) or Tanukh ( ar, تنوخ, translit=Tanūḫ) or Banū Tanūkh (, romanized as: ) were a confederation of Arab tribes, sometimes characterized as Saracens. They first rose to prom ...
id chieftain of the village of Ramtun in the Gharb, Alam al-Din Sulayman ibn Ghallab, who is mentioned by the
Buhturid The Buhturids, also known as the Banu Buhtur or the Tanukh, were a dynasty whose chiefs served as the emirs (commanders) of the Gharb area southeast of Beirut in Mount Lebanon in the 12th–15th centuries. A branch of the Tanukhid tribal confeder ...
chronicler
Salih ibn Yahya Salih (; ar, صَالِحٌ, Ṣāliḥ, lit=Pious), also spelled Saleh (), is an Arab prophet mentioned in the Quran who prophesied to the tribe of Thamud in ancient Arabia, before the lifetime of Muhammad. The story of Salih is linked to the ...
(d. 1435). Although Shidyaq's version was accepted by the historians
Henri Lammens Henri Lammens (1 Jul 1862 – 23 Apr 1937) was a Belgian Orientalist historian and Jesuit, who wrote (in French) on the early history of Islam. Education and career as a Jesuit Born in Ghent, Belgium of Catholic Flemish stock, Henri Lammens jo ...
and Philip K. Hitti, Salibi considered it "confused and entirely unconvincing ... pure fancy". Research by Alexander Hourani, based on the ''Sijill al-Arslani'' (genealogical records of the Arslan family of Choueifat), holds that the Alam al-Dins were descendants of Alam al-Din Ma'n ibn Mu'attib, a descendant of the Abd Allah ibn al-Nu'man ibn Malik branch of the Tanukh confederation; the Arslans are purported descendants of Raslan ibn Malik, the uncle of Abd Allah ibn al-Nu'man. The ''Sijill al-Arslani'' dates the arrival of the Alam al-Din and Arslan families in Mount Lebanon to the late 8th century. The Alam al-Dins had marital ties with the Arslans, as well as the Buhturids, which was also a Tanukhid family. The historian William Harris considers Salibi's theory of Ma'nid ancestry of the Alam al-Dins to be without evidence. He notes that the Alam al-Dins' likely Tanukhid ancestry gave them enough traditional authority to claim rights of chieftainship over the Druze.


Muzaffar al-Andari of the Jurd

The Alam al-Dins moved from Ramtun to Ain Dara in the Jurd in the 16th century. A certain Druze ''
muqaddam ( ar, مقدم) is an Arabic title, adopted in other Islamic or Islamicate cultures, for various civil or religious officials. As per the Persian records of medieval India, muqaddams, along with khots and chowdhurys, acted as hereditary rural i ...
'' (local chieftain) "Alam al-Din" of the Matn, a Druze district bordering the Jurd to the north, is mentioned in Ottoman documents as having surrendered his muskets and defected to the Ottomans during their 1585 expedition against Qurqumaz Ma'n and his Druze warriors. The preeminent chieftain of the Jurd in the early 17th century, Shaykh Muzaffar al-Andari, was likely a member of the Alam al-Din. Hourani notes that he was "apparently identical" to the Muzaffar ibn Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Zahr al-Din Husayn ibn Nur al-Din Ishaq Alam al-Din mentioned in the ''Sijill al-Arslani'' as the brother-in-law of an Arslan chief. Muzaffar was among the early Druze opponents of the governor of Sidon-Beirut and
Safad Safed (known in Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an eleva ...
, the powerful Ma'nid chief Fakhr al-Din. He provided key military assistance to the army of the governor of Damascus,
Hafiz Ahmed Pasha Hafiz () or Hafez may refer to: * Hafiz (Quran), a term used by Muslims for people who have completely memorized the Qur'an ** ''Al-Ḥafīẓ'', one of the names of God in Islam, meaning "the Ever-Preserving/ Guardian/ All-Watching/ Protector" ...
, and the Sayfas during their invasion of the Ma'n-dominated Chouf in 1613. Muzaffar and Husayn Sayfa burned and looted several villages in the Chouf, but were stopped by Hafiz Ahmed Pasha from completing the burning of the Ma'nid seat of Deir al-Qamar. Fakhr al-Din fled to Europe on that occasion, remaining there for the next five years. In that year Muzaffar was transferred the tax farms of the Jurd, Keserwan, Matn, Gharb and Shahhar districts, all of which were held previously by Fakhr al-Din or his proxies. He held onto the tax farms in 1614. According to Salibi, Shaykh Muzaffar led the Yaman faction, composed of the Arslans under Muhammad ibn Jamal al-Din and the Druze Sawwaf family chiefs of Shbaniyya in the Matn. The Yaman stood in opposition to the Qays led by the Buhturs and the Ma'ns. The Ma'n regained the good graces of the Ottomans by 1616 and used the momentum to confront their Druze rivals. Muzaffar, the Sawwafs and the son of Muhammad ibn Jamal al-Din, backed by the Sayfas, were routed by the Ma'n led by Fakhr al-Din's son Ali and brother Yunis in four August engagements at Naimeh near Beirut, Abeih in the Gharb, and Ighmid and Ain Dara, both in the Jurd. Fakhr al-Din returned in 1618 and launched an offensive against the Sayfas, with whom Muzaffar had taken refuge after the 1616 defeats. He was holed up in the
Krak des Chevaliers Krak des Chevaliers, ar, قلعة الحصن, Qalʿat al-Ḥiṣn also called Hisn al-Akrad ( ar, حصن الأكراد, Ḥiṣn al-Akrād, rtl=yes, ) and formerly Crac de l'Ospital; Krak des Chevaliers or Crac des Chevaliers (), is a medieva ...
with Yusuf Sayfa when Fakhr al-Din besieged the fortress in 1619. Muzaffar reconciled with Fakhr al-Din in December 1619/January 1620 and was appointed by him his subordinate chieftain in the Jurd. Fakhr al-Din's reasoning for reinstating Muzaffar in the Jurd was because Muzaffar "was originally from there and his ancestors had long been its governors", according to Khalidi. He joined Fakhr al-Din's coalition in the major
Battle of Anjar The Battle of Anjar was fought on 1 November 1623 between the army of Fakhr al-Din II and an coalition army led by the governor of Damascus Mustafa Pasha. Background In 1623, Yunus al-Harfush prohibited the Druze of the Chouf from cultivatin ...
in 1623, in which the governor of Damascus was routed and captured.


Paramount chiefs of the Druze


Chieftainship of Ali

The first mention of Ali Alam al-Din in the sources was by Duwayhi in 1633. Duwayhi notes Ali was the leader of the Yaman faction of the Druze (opponents of the Qays faction headed by the Tanukh and Ma'n families). In that year he was appointed by the Ottomans to replace Fakhr al-Din of the Ma'n as the multazim (tax farmer) of the Druze Mountain, i.e. the predominantly Druze districts of the Chouf, Gharb, Jurd and Matn in southern Mount Lebanon. Fakhr al-Din had been captured in an Ottoman military expedition and imprisoned in Constantinople. Ali proceeded soon after to kill Fakhr al-Din's allies, the Tanukh chiefs of Abeih in the Gharb, Yahya al-Aqil, Sayf al-Din, Nasir al-Din and Mahmud, and their three young children, thereby eliminating the Tanukh family. They were replaced as the leaders of the Qays Druze by Fakhr al-Din's nephew
Mulhim Ma'n Mulhim ibn Yunus Ma'n was the paramount Druze emir of Mount Lebanon and head of the Ma'n dynasty after succeeding his uncle Fakhr al-Din II in 1633. The Ottomans executed Fakhr al-Din, Mulhim's father Yunus, and his brothers and cousins during an ...
, who led the opposition to Ali and the Yaman. In 1635 Ali and his Druze ally Zayn al-Din Sawwaf supported Ali Sayfa in his struggle to gain control of Tripoli from his uncle Assaf Sayfa in 1635. After initial successes, which saw Ali Sayfa regain control of Tripoli city,
Byblos Byblos ( ; gr, Βύβλος), also known as Jbeil or Jubayl ( ar, جُبَيْل, Jubayl, locally ; phn, 𐤂𐤁𐤋, , probably ), is a city in the Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate of Lebanon. It is believed to have been first occupied between 8 ...
and
Batroun Batroun ( ar, ٱلْبَتْرُون '; Syriac script: ܒܬܪܘܢ ') is a coastal city in northern Lebanon and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It is the capital city of Batroun District. Etymology The name ''Bat ...
, the allies fought a bloody stalemate against Assaf before being expelled from the
Tripoli Eyalet Tripoli Eyalet ( ota, ایالت طرابلس شام, Eyālet-i Ṭrāblus-ı Şām; ar, طرابلس الشام) was an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. The capital was in Tripoli, Lebanon. Its reported area in the 19th century was . It extended ...
in 1636. Assaf and the Janissaries of Damascus launched an offensive later that year against Ali for backing Ali Sayfa and failing to remit owed taxes from his Mount Lebanon tax farms. Ali and Ali Sayfa were then driven out of southern Mount Lebanon by the Qaysi Druze and holed themselves up in the
Arqa Arqa ( ar, عرقا; akk, 𒅕𒋡𒋫, translit=Irqata) is a Lebanese village near Miniara in Akkar Governorate, Lebanon, 22 km northeast of Tripoli, near the coast. The town was a notable city-state during the Iron Age. The city of ' ...
fortress near Tripoli. There they were defeated again by Assaf and the Damascene Janissaries. However, after their defeat Ali Sayfa and Assaf reconciled under mediation by the
Al Fadl AL, Al, Ål or al may stand for: Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Al (''Aladdin'') or Aladdin, the main character in Disney's ''Aladdin'' media * Al (''EastEnders''), a minor character in the British soap opera * Al (''Fullmetal ...
tribe and the two Sayfas subsequently escorted Ali back to Beirut to resume his leadership position. By 1636 Mulhim had gained control of the Chouf, though Ali retained his chieftainship over the Gharb, Jurd and Matn. Ali continued to control these districts at the time of Mulhim's death in 1658, by which time Mulhim's tax farms had expanded to the Safad Sanjak (e.g. the Galilee and
Jabal Amil Jabal Amil ( ar, جبل عامل, Jabal ʿĀmil), also spelled Jabal Amel and historically known as Jabal Amila, is a cultural and geographic region in Southern Lebanon largely associated with its long-established, predominantly Twelver Shia Musl ...
) and Batroun. Mulhim was succeeded in his tax farms and leadership of the Qays by his son Ahmad.


Chieftainship of Muhammad

Ali died in 1660 and was succeeded by his sons Muhammad and Mansur. The former became the paramount chief of the Druze-dominated southern Mount Lebanon in 1662. The following year Mansur defeated a Qaysi Druze force at Adma. In 1667
Ahmad Ma'n Aḥmad ibn Mulḥim ibn Yunus Maʾn was the paramount emir of the Druze in Mount Lebanon and the tax farmer of the subdistricts of the Chouf, Matn, Gharb and Jurd from 1667 until his death in 1697. He was the last member of the Ma'n dynasty, afte ...
defeated the Alam al-Dins in a battle outside of Beirut and took over their domains across the Druze districts and Keserwan. After their 1667 defeat the Alam al-Din chiefs resettled in Damascus and became politically inactive in Mount Lebanon. In 1669–1671 Muhammad held the tax farm for the village of Hubran near modern Suwayda in the Hauran, according to Ottoman tax records. Druze oral tradition in the Hauran recorded in the 20th century holds that the Alam al-Din chiefs led two hundred men and their families from Mount Lebanon to settle the Hauran in 1685, the first major wave of Druze migration to the area.


Attempts to return and demise under Musa

According to the history of Duwayhi, in 1693 a son of Muhammad, Musa, successfully petitioned the
Sublime Porte The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( ota, باب عالی, Bāb-ı Ālī or ''Babıali'', from ar, باب, bāb, gate and , , ), was a synecdoche for the central government of the Ottoman Empire. History The name ...
(imperial Ottoman government) in
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya ( Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
for a commission to evict and replace Ahmad Ma'n. With Ottoman backing, he forced Ahmad out of Deir al-Qamar, but shortly after he withdrew to Damascus and Ahmad was restored to his seat. Firmans from the Porte dated June 1694 and May 1695 appointed "the prominent emir, Musa Alam al-Din" to replace Ahmad in the latter's tax farms. In June 1695 another firman noted that Musa fled his Mount Lebanon districts while he was collecting taxes due to attacks by the Ma'ns and the Ma'ns' non-Druze marital relatives, the
Shihabs The Shihab dynasty (alternatively spelled Chehab; ar, الشهابيون, ALA-LC: ''al-Shihābiyūn'') was an Arab family whose members served as the paramount tax farmers and local chiefs of Mount Lebanon from the early 18th to mid-19th centu ...
of
Wadi al-Taym Wadi al-Taym ( ar, وادي التيم, Wādī al-Taym), also transliterated as Wadi el-Taym, is a wadi (dry river) that forms a large fertile valley in Lebanon, in the districts of Rachaya and Hasbaya on the western slopes of Mount Hermon. It ad ...
. The firman orders the governor of
Sidon Eyalet ota, ایالت صیدا , common_name = Eyalet of Sidon , subdivision = Eyalet , nation = the Ottoman Empire , year_start = 1660 , year_end = 1864 , date_start = , date_end = , ev ...
to restore Musa to his position and suppress the Ma'ns and Shihabs. Ahmad died in 1697 without male progeny. His chieftainship was inherited by his non-Druze marital relatives, the
Shihabs The Shihab dynasty (alternatively spelled Chehab; ar, الشهابيون, ALA-LC: ''al-Shihābiyūn'') was an Arab family whose members served as the paramount tax farmers and local chiefs of Mount Lebanon from the early 18th to mid-19th centu ...
of
Wadi al-Taym Wadi al-Taym ( ar, وادي التيم, Wādī al-Taym), also transliterated as Wadi el-Taym, is a wadi (dry river) that forms a large fertile valley in Lebanon, in the districts of Rachaya and Hasbaya on the western slopes of Mount Hermon. It ad ...
. At Ahmad's death Musa again attempted to replace his successor, Bashir Shihab I, by order of the Sublime Porte, but the Ottomans denied his request. The Yamani Druze of Mount Lebanon led by Mahmoud Abi Harmoush of Samqaniyeh revolted against Bashir's successor and cousin, Haydar Shihab, in 1709–1711. Under Abi Harmoush's auspices Musa returned to Mount Lebanon with his kinsmen and supporters to lead the revolt and attempt to take over the paramount chieftainship of the Mount Lebanon Druze. The Shihabs and their Qaysi supporters routed the Alam al-Dins and the Yaman in the Battle of Ain Dara in 1711, which ended with the deaths of Musa and six other Alam al-Din chiefs. Their defeat precipitated a mass migration of Yamani Druze to the Hauran. There, the Alam al-Dins were succeeded as the chiefs of the Druze by their associates, the Hamdan family. Although the general consensus among historians is that the family was exterminated in the Battle of Ain Dara, Sami Swayd's ''Historical Dictionary of the Druzes'' holds that surviving members of the Alam al-Din fled to
Baaqlin Baakleen or Baakline ( ar, بعقلين) is a major Druze town located in Mount Lebanon, Chouf District, 45 kilometers southeast of Beirut. Altitude 850 – 920 meters high, population is 30,000, area 14 square km, number of homes 2,870. Bord ...
in the Chouf, and a number of them relocated from there to
Hasbaya Hasbeya or Hasbeiya ( ar, حاصبيا) is a town in Lebanon, situated at the foot of Mount Hermon, overlooking a deep amphitheatre from which a brook flows to the Hasbani. In 1911, the population was about 5000. Hasbaya is the capital of the Wa ...
in Wadi al-Taym. By the end of the 18th century, part of the Alam al-Dins moved to Suwayda. Swayd's dictionary holds that in the present day members of the family also live in Jordan, Europe, Australia and the Americas.


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * {{Druze footer, uncollapsed 17th-century Arabs 18th-century Arabs 17th-century people from the Ottoman Empire 18th-century people from the Ottoman Empire Lebanese Druze families Druze people from the Ottoman Empire Lebanese noble families Families from the Ottoman Empire Ottoman period in Lebanon Druze in the Ottoman Empire