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In
linguistics Linguistics is the science, scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure ...
, agglutination is a morphological process in which words are formed by stringing together
morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful constituent of a linguistic expression. The field of linguistic study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. In English, morphemes are often but not necessarily words. Morphemes that stand alone are ...
s, each of which corresponds to a single syntactic feature. Languages that use agglutination widely are called
agglutinative language An agglutinative language is a type of synthetic language with morphology that primarily uses agglutination. Words may contain different morphemes to determine their meanings, but all of these morphemes (including stems and affixes) tend to r ...
s. Turkish is an example of an agglutinative language. The Turkish word ("from your houses") consists of the morphemes ''ev-ler-iniz-den,'' literally translated morpheme-by-morpheme as ''house-plural-your(plural)-from''. Agglutinative languages are often contrasted with
isolating language An isolating language is a type of language with a morpheme per word ratio close to one, and with no inflectional morphology whatsoever. In the extreme case, each word contains a single morpheme. Examples of widely spoken isolating language ...
s, in which words are monomorphemic, and
fusional language Fusional languages or inflected languages are a type of synthetic language, distinguished from agglutinative languages by their tendency to use a single inflectional morpheme to denote multiple grammatical, syntactic, or semantic features. ...
s, in which words can be complex, but morphemes may correspond to multiple features.


Examples of agglutinative languages

Although agglutination is characteristic of certain language families, this does not mean that when several languages in a certain geographic area are all agglutinative they are necessarily related phylogenetically. In the past, this assumption led linguists to propose the so-called Ural–Altaic language family, which included the Uralic and Turkic languages, as well as Mongolian, Korean, and Japanese. Contemporary linguistics views this proposal as controversial. Another consideration when evaluating the above proposal is that some languages, which developed from agglutinative proto-languages, lost their agglutinative features. For example, contemporary Estonian has shifted towards the fusional type. (It has also lost other features typical of the Uralic families, such as
vowel harmony In phonology, vowel harmony is an assimilatory process in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – have to be members of the same natural class (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is typically long distance, mea ...
.)


Eurasia

Examples of agglutinative languages include the
Uralic languages The Uralic languages (; sometimes called Uralian languages ) form a language family of 38 languages spoken by approximately 25million people, predominantly in Northern Eurasia. The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are Hungarian (w ...
, such as
Finnish Finnish may refer to: * Something or someone from, or related to Finland * Culture of Finland * Finnish people or Finns, the primary ethnic group in Finland * Finnish language, the national language of the Finnish people * Finnish cuisine See also ...
, Estonian, and Hungarian. These have highly agglutinated expressions in daily usage, and most words are bisyllabic or longer. Grammatical information expressed by adpositions in Western Indo-European languages is typically found in suffixes. Hungarian uses extensive agglutination in almost every part of it. The suffixes follow each other in special order based on the role of the suffix, and many can be heaped, one upon the other, resulting in words conveying complex meanings in compacted forms. An example is ''fiaiéi,'' where the root "fi(ú)-" means "son", the subsequent four vowels are all separate suffixes, and the whole word means " lural propertiesbelong to his/her sons". The nested possessive structure and expression of plurals are quite remarkable (note that Hungarian uses no genders). Almost all Austronesian languages, such as Malay, and most
Philippine languages The Philippine languages or Philippinic are a proposed group by R. David Paul Zorc (1986) and Robert Blust (1991; 2005; 2019) that include all the languages of the Philippines and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia—except Sama–Bajaw (languag ...
, also belong to this category, thus enabling them to form new words from simple base forms. The Indonesian and Malay word ''mempertanggungjawabkan'' is formed by adding active-voice, causative and benefactive affixes to the compound verb ''tanggung jawab'', which means "to account for". In Tagalog (and its standardised register,
Filipino Filipino may refer to: * Something from or related to the Philippines ** Filipino language, standardized variety of 'Tagalog', the national language and one of the official languages of the Philippines. ** Filipinos, people who are citizens of th ...
), ''nakakapágpabagabag'' ("that which is upsetting/disturbing") is formed from the root ''bagabag'' ("upsetting" or "disquieting").
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
is also an agglutinating language, adding information such as negation, passive
voice The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal tract, including talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, shouting, humming or yelling. The human voice frequency is specifically a part of human sound producti ...
, past tense,
honorific An honorific is a title that conveys esteem, courtesy, or respect for position or rank when used in addressing or referring to a person. Sometimes, the term "honorific" is used in a more specific sense to refer to an honorary academic title. It ...
degree and causality in the verb form. Common examples would be , which combines causative, passive or potential, and conditional conjugations to arrive at two meanings depending on context "if (subject) had been made to work..." and "if (subject) could make (object) work", and , which combines desire, negation, and past tense conjugations to mean "I/he/she/they did not want to eat". * * * * Turkish, along with all other
Turkic languages The Turkic languages are a language family of over 35 documented languages, spoken by the Turkic peoples of Eurasia from Eastern Europe and Southern Europe to Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia ( Siberia), and Western Asia. The Turkic l ...
, is another agglutinating language: as an extreme example, the expression is pronounced as one word in Turkish, but it can be translated into English as "as if you were of those we would not be able to turn into a maker of unsuccessful ones". The "-siniz" refers to plural form of you with "-sin" being the singular form, the same way "-im" being "I" (“-im” means “my” not “I”. The original editor must have mistaken it for “-yim.” This second suffix is used as such “Oraya gideyim” meaning “May I go there” or “When I get there”) and "-imiz" making it become "we". Similarly, this suffix means “our” and not “we”. All
Dravidian languages The Dravidian languages (or sometimes Dravidic) are a family of languages spoken by 250 million people, mainly in southern India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan. Since the colonial era, there have been small but significant ...
, including
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
,
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 2 ...
, Tamil, and Telugu are agglutinative. For example, in Tamil, the word "" () means "for the sake of those who cannot do that", literally "that to do impossible he lural marker ative markerto become". Another example is verb conjugation. In all Dravidian languages, verbal markers are used to convey tense, person, and mood. For example, in Tamil, "" (, "I eat") is formed from the verb root (, "to eat") + the present tense marker () + the first-person singular suffix (). Agglutination is also a notable feature of
Basque Basque may refer to: * Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France * Basque language, their language Places * Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France * Basque Country (autonomous co ...
. The conjugation of verbs, for example, is done by adding different prefixes or suffixes to the root of the verb: ''dakartzat'', which means "I bring them", is formed by ''da'' (indicates present tense), ''kar'' (root of the verb ''ekarri'' → bring), ''tza'' (indicates plural) and ''t'' (indicates subject, in this case, "I"). Another example would be the declension: ''Etxean'' = "In the house" where ''etxe'' = house.


Americas

Agglutination is used very heavily in most Native American
language Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of ...
s, such as the Inuit languages, Nahuatl, Mapudungun,
Quechua Quechua may refer to: *Quechua people, several indigenous ethnic groups in South America, especially in Peru *Quechuan languages, a Native South American language family spoken primarily in the Andes, derived from a common ancestral language **So ...
, Tz'utujil, Kaqchikel,
Cha'palaachi Cha'palaa (also known as Chachi or Cayapa) is a Barbacoan language spoken in northern Ecuador by ca. 3000 ethnic Chachi people. "Cha'palaa" means "language of the Chachi people." This language was described in part by the missionary P. Alberto V ...
and K'iche, where one word can contain enough
morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful constituent of a linguistic expression. The field of linguistic study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. In English, morphemes are often but not necessarily words. Morphemes that stand alone are ...
s to convey the meaning of what would be a complex sentence in other languages. Conversely, Navajo contains affixes for some uses, but overlays them in such unpredictable and inseparable ways that it is often referred to as a fusional language.


Slots

As noted above, it is a typical feature of agglutinative languages that there is a one-to-one correspondence between suffixes and syntactic categories. For example, a noun may have separate markers for number, case, possessive or conjunctive usage etc. The order of these affixes is fixed;Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...
verb has seven slots (the inner round brackets indicate parts of morphemes which may be omitted in some phonological environments): # honorific: ''‐(eu)si'' ((으)시) is used when the speaker is honouring the subject of the sentence # tense: ''‐(eo)ss'' (었) for completed (past) action or state; when this slot is empty, the tense is interpreted as present (The 'ss' is pronounced as 't' if it is placed behind a consonant. For example, -었어(eoss-eo) is pronounced as (eosseo), but -었다(eoss-ta) is pronounced as (eotta). Please note that the same rule applies to all instances of the 'ss' ending.) # experiential-contrastive aspect: ''-(eo)ss'' (었) doubling the past tense marker means "the subject has had the experience described by the verb" # modal: ''-gess'' (겠) is used with first-person-subjects only for definite future and with second-or-third-person-subjects also for probable present or past # formal: ''-(eu)pni'' ((으)ㅂ니) expresses politeness to the hearer # retrospective aspect: ''-deo''; (더) indicates that the speaker recollects what he observed in the past and reports in the present situation # mood: ''-da'' (다) for declarative, ''-kka'' (까) for interrogative, ''-ra/-la'' (라) for imperative, ''-ja'' (자) for propositive, ''-yo'' (요) for polite declarative and a large number of other possible mood markers Moreover, passive and causative verbal forms can be derived by adding suffixes to the base, which could be seen as the null-th slot. Even though some combinations of suffixes are not possible (e.g. only one of the aspect slots may be filled with a non-empty suffix), over 400 verb forms may be formed from a single base. Here are a few examples formed from the word root ''ga'' 'to go'; the numbers indicate which slots contain non-empty suffixes: * 7 (imperative mood marker): imperative suffix ''-ra'' (라) combines with the root ''ga-'' (가) to express imperative: ''ga-ra'' (가라) 'Go!'; * 7 (propositive mood marker): if we want to express proposition rather than command, the propositive mood marker is used: ''-ja'' (자) instead of ''-ra'' (라): ''ga-ja'' (가자) 'Let's go!' * 5 and 7: If the speaker wants to show respect for the hearer, he uses the politeness marker ''-(eu)pni'' ((으)ㅂ니) (in slot 5); various mood markers may be simultaneously used (in slot 7, therefore after the politeness marker): ''gap-ni-da'' (갑니다) 'He is going.', ''gap-ni-kka?'' (갑니까) 'Is he going?' * 6: retrospective aspect: ''Jon-i jib-e ga-deo-ra'' (존이 집에 가더라) 'I observed that John was going home and now I am reporting that to you.' * 7: simple indicative: ''seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e gan-da'' (선생님이 집에 간다) 'The teacher is going home. (not expressing respect or politeness)' * 5 and 7: politeness towards the hearer: ''seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e gap-ni-da'' (선생님이 집에 갑니다) or ''seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-yo'' (선생님이 집에 가요) 'The teacher is going home.', * 1 and 7: respect towards the subject: ''seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-sin-da'' (선생님이 집에 가신다) 'The (respected) teacher is going home.' * 1, 5 and 7: two kinds of politeness in one sentence: ''seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-syeo-yo'' (선생님이 집에 가셔요) or ''seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-sip-ni-da'' (선생님이 집에 가십니다) 'The teacher is going home. (expressing respect both to the hearer and the teacher)' * 2, 3 and 7: past forms: ''Jon-i hak-gyo-e ga-ss-da/gat-ta'' (존이 학교에 갔다) 'John has gone to school (and is there now).', ''Jon-i hak-gyo-e gass-eoss-da/gass-eot-ta'' (존이 학교에 갔었다) 'John has been to school (and has come back).' * 4 and 7: first person modal: ''nae-ga nae-il ga-gess-da/ga-get-ta'' (내가 내일 가겠다) 'I will go tomorrow.' * 4 and 7: third person modal: ''Jon-i nae-il ga-gess-da/ga-get-ta'' (존이 내일 가겠다) 'I suppose that John will go tomorrow.', ''Jon-i eo-je gass-gess-da/gat-get-ta'' (존이 어제 갔겠다) 'I suppose that John left yesterday.'


Suffixing or prefixing

Although most agglutinative languages in Europe and Asia are predominantly suffixing, the Bantu languages of southern Africa are known for a highly complex mixture of prefixes, suffixes and reduplication. A typical feature of this language family is that nouns fall into noun classes. For each noun class, there are specific singular and plural prefixes, which also serve as markers of agreement between the subject and the verb. Moreover, the noun determines prefixes of all words that modify it and subject determines prefixes of other elements in the same verb phrase. For example, the Swahili nouns ''-toto'' ("child") and ''-tu'' ("person") fall into class 1, with singular prefix ''m-'' and plural prefix ''wa-''. The noun ''-tabu'' ("book") falls into class 7, with singular prefix ''ki-'' and plural prefix ''vi-''. The following sentences may be formed:


In the context of quantitative linguistics

The American linguist Joseph Harold Greenberg in his 1960 paper proposed to use the so-called ''agglutinative index'' to calculate a numerical value that would allow a researcher to compare the "degree of agglutitativeness" of various languages. For Greenberg, ''agglutination'' means that the morphs are joined only with slight or no modification. A
morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful constituent of a linguistic expression. The field of linguistic study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. In English, morphemes are often but not necessarily words. Morphemes that stand alone are ...
is said to be automatic if it either takes a single surface form (morph), or if its surface form is determined by phonological rules that hold in all similar instances in that language. A morph juncture – a position in a word where two morphs meet – is considered agglutinative when both morphemes included are automatic. The index of agglutination is equal to the average ratio of the number of agglutinative junctures to the number of morph junctures. Languages with high values of the agglutinative index are agglutinative and with low values of the agglutinative index are fusional. In the same paper, Greenberg proposed several other indices, many of which turn out to be relevant to the study of agglutination. The ''synthetic index'' is the average number of morphemes per word, with the lowest conceivable value equal to 1 for isolating (analytic) languages and real-life values rarely exceeding 3. The compounding index is equal to the average number of root morphemes per word (as opposed to derivational and inflectional morphemes). The derivational, inflectional, prefixial and suffixial indices correspond respectively to the average number of derivational and inflectional morphemes, prefixes and suffixes. Here is a table of sample values:


Phonetics and agglutination

The one-to-one relationship between an affix and its grammatical function may be somewhat complicated by the phonological processes active in the given language. For example, the following two phonological phenomena appear in many of the Uralic and Turkic languages: * ''
consonant gradation Consonant gradation is a type of consonant mutation (mostly lenition but also assimilation) found in some Uralic languages, more specifically in the Finnic, Samic and Samoyedic branches. It originally arose as an allophonic alternation betw ...
'', meaning that there is alternation between certain pairs of consonant clusters such that one member of the pair appears at the beginning of an open syllable and the other at the beginning of a closed syllable; (in Uralic languages) * consonant devoicing assimilation: similar but different process from above, assimilating devoicing of a stem-final unvoiced consonant; (in some Turkic languages) * ''
vowel harmony In phonology, vowel harmony is an assimilatory process in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – have to be members of the same natural class (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is typically long distance, mea ...
'', meaning that only specific subclasses of vowels coexist in a non-compounded word. Several examples from
Finnish Finnish may refer to: * Something or someone from, or related to Finland * Culture of Finland * Finnish people or Finns, the primary ethnic group in Finland * Finnish language, the national language of the Finnish people * Finnish cuisine See also ...
will illustrate how these two rules and other phonological processes lead to diversions from the basic one-to-one relationship between morphs and their syntactic and semantic function. No phonological rule is applied in the declension of ''talo'' 'house'. However, the second example illustrates several kinds of phonological phenomena.


Extremes

It is possible to construct artificially extreme examples of agglutination, which have no real use, but illustrate the theoretical capability of the grammar to agglutinate. This is not a question of "long words", because some languages permit limitless combinations with compound words, negative clitics or such, which can be (and are) expressed with an analytic structure in actual usage. English is capable of agglutinating morphemes of solely native ( Germanic) origin, as ''un-whole-some-ness'', but generally speaking the longest words are assembled from forms of
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
or
Ancient Greek Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic p ...
origin. The classic example is ''
antidisestablishmentarianism Antidisestablishmentarianism (, ) is a position that advocates that a state Church (the "established church") should continue to receive government patronage, rather than be disestablished. In 19th century Britain, it developed as a politica ...
''. Agglutinative languages often have more complex derivational agglutination than isolating languages, so they can do the same to a much larger extent. For example, in Hungarian, a word such as , which means "for he purposes ofundenationalizationability" can find actual use. In the same way, there are the words that have meaning, but probably are never used such as , which means "like the most of most undesecratable ones of you", but is hard to decipher even for native speakers. Using inflectional agglutination, these can be extended. For example, the official Guinness world record is Finnish "I wonder if – even with his/her quality of not having been made unsystematized". It has the derived word as the root and is lengthened with the inflectional endings ''-llänsäkäänköhän''. However, this word is grammatically unusual, because ''-kään'' "also" is used only in negative clauses, but ''-kö'' (question) only in question clauses. A very popular Turkish agglutination is , meaning "(Apparently / I've heard that) You are one of those that we were not able to convert into Czechoslovakians". This historical reference is used as a joke for the individuals who are hard to change or those who stick out in a group. On the other hand, is a longer word that does not surprise people and means "As if you were one of those we were able to make resemble people from
Afyonkarahisar Afyonkarahisar (, tr, afyon "poppy, opium", ''kara'' "black", ''hisar'' "fortress") is a city in western Turkey, the capital of Afyon Province. Afyon is in the mountainous countryside inland from the Aegean coast, south-west of Ankara along t ...
". A recent addition to the claims has come with the introduction of the following word in Turkish , which means something like "(you are talking) as if you are one of those that we were unable to turn into a maker of unsuccessful people" (someone who un-educates people to make them unsuccessful). Georgian is also a highly agglutinative language. For example, the word () would mean "(someone not specified) said that it is also for those who are like the ones who need to be to again/back counter-revolutionized".
Aristophanes Aristophanes (; grc, Ἀριστοφάνης, ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion ( la, Cydathenaeum), was a comic playwright or comedy-writer of ancient Athens and a poet of Old Attic Comedy. Eleven of his for ...
' comedy '' Assemblywomen'' includes the Greek word , a fictional dish named with a word that enumerates its ingredients. It was created to ridicule a trend for long compounds in Attic Greek at the time.
Slavic languages The Slavic languages, also known as the Slavonic languages, are Indo-European languages spoken primarily by the Slavic peoples and their descendants. They are thought to descend from a proto-language called Proto-Slavic, spoken during the ...
are not considered agglutinative but
fusional Fusional languages or inflected languages are a type of synthetic language, distinguished from agglutinative languages by their tendency to use a single inflectional morpheme to denote multiple grammatical, syntactic, or semantic features. For e ...
. However, extreme derivations similar to ones found in typical agglutinative languages do exist. A famous example is the Bulgarian word ''непротивоконституциослователствувайте'', meaning ''don't speak against the constitution'' and secondarily ''don't act against the constitution''. It is composed of just three roots: против ''against'', конституция ''constitution'', a loan word and therefore devoid of its internal composition and слово ''word''. The remaining are bound morphemes for negation (''не'', a proclitic, otherwise written separately in verbs), noun intensifier (''-ателств''), noun-to-verb conversion (''-ува''), imperative mood second person plural ending (''-йте''). It is rather unusual, but finds some usage, e.g. newspaper headlines on 13 July 1991, the day after the current Bulgarian constitution was adopted with much controversy and debate, and even scandals.


Other uses of the words ''agglutination'' and ''agglutinative''

The words ''agglutination'' and ''agglutinative'' come from the Latin word ''agglutinare'', 'to glue together'. In linguistics, these words have been in use since 1836, when Wilhelm von Humboldt's posthumously published work ''Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwicklung des Menschengeschlechts'' it.: On the differences of human language construction and its influence on the mental development of mankindintroduced the division of languages into ''isolating'', ''inflectional'', ''agglutinative'' and ''incorporating''. Especially in some older literature, ''agglutinative'' is sometimes used as a synonym for '' synthetic''. In that case, it embraces what we call agglutinative and inflectional languages, and it is an antonym of ''analytic'' or ''isolating''. Besides the clear etymological motivation (after all, inflectional endings are also "glued" to the stems), this more general usage is justified by the fact that the distinction between agglutinative and inflectional languages is not a sharp one, as we have already seen. In the second half of the 19th century, many linguists believed that there is a natural cycle of language evolution: function words of the isolating type are glued to their head-words, so that the language becomes agglutinative; later morphs become merged through phonological processes, and what comes out is an inflectional language; finally inflectional endings are often dropped in quick speech, inflection is omitted and the language goes back to the isolating type. The following passage from Lord (1960) demonstrates well the whole range of meanings that the word ''agglutination'' may have.
(''Agglutination''...) consists of the welding together of two or more terms constantly occurring as a syntagmatic group into a single unit, which becomes either difficult or impossible to analyse thereafter. Agglutination takes various forms. In French, welding becomes complete fusion. Latin ''hanc horam'' 'at this hour' is the French adverbial unit ''encore''. Old French ''tous jours'' becomes ''toujours'', and ''dès jà'' ('since now') ''déjà'' ('already'). In English, on the other hand, apart from rare combinations such as ''good-bye'' from ''God be with you'', ''walnut'' from ''Wales nut'', ''window'' from ''wind-eye'' (O.N. ''vindauga''), the units making up the agglutinated forms retain their identity. Words like ''blackbird'' and ''beefeater'' are a different kettle of fish; they retain their units but their ultimate meaning is not fully deducible from these units. (...) Saussure preferred to distinguish between ''compound'' words and truly ''synthesised'' or agglutinated combinations.


Agglutinative languages in natural language processing

In natural language processing, languages with rich morphology pose problems of quite a different kind than isolating languages. In the case of agglutinative languages, the main obstacle lies in the large number of word forms that can be obtained from a single root. As we have already seen, the generation of these word forms is somewhat complicated by the phonological processes of the particular language. Although the basic one-to-one relationship between form and syntactic function is not broken in Finnish, the authoritative institution
Institute for the Languages of Finland The Institute for the Languages of Finland,, from which the shortened name ''Kotus'' is derived, smn, Päikkieennâm kielâi tutkâmkuávdáš, se, Ruovttueatnan gielaid guovddáš, sms, Dommjânnmlaž ǩiõli kõõskõs, rom, Finnosko tšimbe ...
(''Kotus'') list
51 declension types
for Finnish nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numerals. Even more problems occur with the recognition of word forms. Modern linguistic methods are largely based on the exploitation of corpora; however, when the number of possible word forms is large, any corpus will necessarily contain only a small fraction of them. Hajič (2010) claims that computer space and power are so cheap nowadays that all possible word forms may be generated beforehand and stored in a form of a lexicon listing all possible interpretations of any given word form. (The data structure of the lexicon has to be optimized so that the search is quick and efficient.) According to Hajič, it is the disambiguation of these word forms which is difficult (more so for inflective languages where the ambiguity is high than for agglutinative languages).Hajič (2010), Abstract:
However, it is not the morphology itself (not even for inflective or agglutinative languages) that is causing the headache – with today's cheap space and power, simply listing all the thinkable forms in an appropriately hashed list is o.k. – but it's the disambiguation problem, which is apparently more difficult for such morphologically rich languages (perhaps surprisingly more for the inflective ones than agglutinative ones) than for the analytical ones.
Other authors do not share Hajič's view that space is no issue and instead of listing all possible word forms in a lexicon, word form analysis is implemented by modules which try to break up the surface form into a sequence of morphemes occurring in an order permissible by the language. The problem of such an analysis is the large number of morpheme boundaries typical for agglutinative languages. A word of an inflectional language has only one ending and therefore the number of possible divisions of a word into the base and the ending is only linear with the length of the word. In an agglutinative language, where several suffixes are concatenated at the end of the word, the number of different divisions which have to be checked for consistency is large. This approach was used for example in the development of a system for Arabic, where agglutination occurs when articles, prepositions and conjunctions are joined with the following word and pronouns are joined with the preceding word. See Grefenstette et al. (2005) for more details.


See also

* Affix *
Agglutinative language An agglutinative language is a type of synthetic language with morphology that primarily uses agglutination. Words may contain different morphemes to determine their meanings, but all of these morphemes (including stems and affixes) tend to r ...
* Noun adjunct * Word formation


Notes


References

{{reflist


Bibliography

* Kimmo Koskenniemi & Lingsoft Oy
''Finnish Morphological Analyser''
Lingsoft Language Solutions, 1995–2011. * Bernard Comrie (editor): The World's Major Languages, Oxford University Press, New York – Oxford 1990. * Keith Denning, Suzanne Kemmer (ed.): ''On language: selected writings of Joseph H. Greenberg'', Stanford University Press, 1990. Selected parts are available on
googlebooks
* Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, Nina Hyams: ''An Introduction to Language'', Thompson Wadsworth, 2007. * Joseph H. Greenberg: ''A quantitative approach to the morphological typology of language'', 1960. Available throug
JSTOR
and in Denning et al. (1990), p. 3–25. There is also a goo
a short summary
* Gregory Grefenstette, Nasredine Semmar, Faïza Elkateb-Gara: ''Modifying a Natural Language Processing System for European Languages to Treat Arabic in Information Processing and Information Retrieval Applications'', Computational Approaches to Semitic Languages – Workshop Proceedings, University of Michigan 2005, p. 31-38. Available a

* Jan Hajič: ''Reliving the history: the beginnings of statistical machine translation and languages with rich morphology'', IceTAL'10 Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Advances in natural language processing, Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, 2010. Abstract available a

* Helena Lehečková: Úvod do ugrofinistiky, Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, Praha 1983. * Robert Lord: Teach Yourself Comparative Linguistics, The English Universities Press Ltd., St Paul's House, London 1967 (first edition 1966). * Hans Christian Luschützky: ''Uvedení do typologie jazyků'', Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy, Praha 2003. * J. Vendryes: Language – A Linguistic Introduction to History, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner Co., Ltd., London 1925 (translated by Paul Radin)


External links


Mwana Simba
a web-page about Swahili grammar. Linguistic morphology da:Agglutination