Etymology and nomenclature
Etymology
The word Advaita is a composite of two Sanskrit words: * Prefix "a-" (अ), meaning "non-" * "Dvaita" (द्वैत), which means 'duality' or 'dualism'. ''Advaita'' is often translated as "non-duality," but a more apt translation is "non-secondness." ''Advaita'' has several meanings: * Nonduality of subject and objectElizabeth Reninger, ''Guide Review: David Loy's "Nonduality: A Study In Comparative Philosophy"''Advaita Vedanta
While "a preferred terminology" for Upanisadic philosophy "in the early periods, before the time of Shankara" was ''Puruṣavāda'', the Advaita Vedānta school has historically been referred to by various names, such as ''Advaita-vada'' (speaker of Advaita), ''Abheda-darshana'' (view of non-difference), ''Dvaita-vada-pratisedha'' (denial of dual distinctions), and ''Kevala-dvaita'' (non-dualism of the isolated). It is also called ''māyāvāda'' by Vaishnava opponents, akin to MadhyamakaAdvaita tradition
While the term "Advaita Vedanta" in a strict sense may refer to the scholastic tradition of textual exegesis established by Shankara, "advaita" in a broader sense may refer to a broad current of advaitic thought, which incorporates advaitic elements with yogic thought and practice and other strands of Indian religiosity, such as Kashmir Shaivism and the Nath tradition. The first connotation has also been called "Classical Advaita" and "doctrinal Advaita," and its presentation as such is due to medieaval doxographies, the influence of Orientalist Indologists like Paul Deussen, and the Indian response to colonial influences, dubbedMonism
The nondualism of Advaita Vedānta is often regarded as an idealist monism. According to King, Advaita Vedānta developed "to its ultimate extreme" the monistic ideas already present in the Upanishads. In contrast, states Milne, it is misleading to call Advaita Vedānta "monistic," since this confuses the "negation of difference" with "conflation into one." ''Advaita'' is a negative term (a-dvaita), states Milne, which denotes the "negation of a difference," between subject and object, or between perceiver and perceived. According to Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta teaches monistic oneness, however without the multiplicity premise of alternate monism theories. According to Jacqueline Suthren Hirst, Adi Shankara positively emphasizes "oneness" premise in his Brahma-sutra Bhasya 2.1.20, attributing it to all the Upanishads. Nicholson states Advaita Vedānta contains realistic strands of thought, both in its oldest origins and in Shankara's writings.Darśana (view) – central concerns
Advaita is a subschool of Vedānta, the latter being one of the six classical Hindu ''darśanas'', an integrated body of textual interpretations and religious practices which aim at the attainment of '' moksha'', release or liberation from transmigratory existence. Traditional Advaita Vedānta centers on the study and what it believes to be correct understanding of the ''sruti'', revealed texts, especially the Principal Upanishads, along with theReality and ignorance
Classical Advaita Vedānta states that all reality and everything in the experienced world has its root in Brahman, which is unchanging Consciousness. To Advaitins, there is no duality between a Creator and the created universe. All objects, all experiences, all matter, all consciousness, all awareness are somehow also this one fundamental reality Brahman. Yet, the knowing self has various experiences of reality during the waking, dream and dreamless states, and Advaita Vedānta acknowledges and admits that from the empirical perspective there are numerous distinctions. Advaita explains this by postulating different levels of reality, and by its theory of errors (''anirvacaniya khyati'').Three levels of Reality/truth
Shankara proposes three levels of reality, using sublation as the ontological criterion: * ' (''paramartha'', absolute), the Reality that is metaphysically true and ontologically accurate. It is the state of experiencing that "which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can be resolved". This reality is the highest; it can't be sublated (assimilated) by any other. * ' (''vyavahara''), or ''samvriti-saya'', consisting of the empirical or pragmatical reality. It is ever changing over time, thus empirically true at a given time and context but not metaphysically true. It is "our world of experience, the phenomenal world that we handle every day when we are awake". It is the level in which both '' jiva'' (living creatures or individual Selfs) and '' Iswara'' are true; here, the material world is also true but this is incomplete reality and is sublatable. * ' (''pratibhasika'', apparent reality, unreality), "reality based on imagination alone". It is the level of experience in which the mind constructs its own reality. Well-known examples of ''pratibhasika'' is the imaginary reality such as the "roaring of a lion" fabricated in dreams during one's sleep, and the perception of a rope in the dark as being a snake. Absolute and relative reality are valid and true in their respective contexts, but only from their respective particular perspectives. John Grimes explains this Advaita doctrine of absolute and relative truth with the example of light and darkness. From the sun's perspective, it neither rises nor sets, there is no darkness, and "all is light". From the perspective of a person on earth, sun does rise and set, there is both light and darkness, not "all is light", there are relative shades of light and darkness. Both are valid realities and truths, given their perspectives. Yet, they are contradictory. What is true from one point of view, states Grimes, is not from another. To Advaita Vedānta, this does not mean there are two truths and two realities, but it only means that the same one Reality and one Truth is explained or experienced from two different perspectives. As they developed these theories, Advaita Vedānta scholars were influenced by some ideas from the Nyaya, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hindu philosophy. These theories have not enjoyed universal consensus among Advaitins, and various competing ontological interpretations have flowered within the Advaita tradition.''Pāramārthika'' - ''Sat'' (True Reality)
Ātman
Ātman ( IAST: ātman,=Three states of consciousness and Turiya
= Advaita posits three states of consciousness, namely waking (jagrat), dreaming (svapna), deep sleep (suṣupti), which are empirically experienced by human beings, and correspond to the Three Bodies Doctrine: # The first state is the waking state, in which we are aware of our daily world. This is the gross body. # The second state is the dreaming mind. This is the subtle body. # The third state is the state of deep sleep. This is the=''Svayam prakāśa'' (self-luminosity)
= For the Advaita tradition, consciousness is svayam prakāśa, "self-luminous," which means that "self is pure awareness by nature." According to Dasgupta, it is "the most fundamental concept of the Vedanta." According to Jonardon Ganeri, the concept was introduced by the Buddhist philosopher Dignāga (c.480–c.540 CE), and accepted by the Vedanta tradition; according to Zhihua Yao, the concept has older roots in the Mahasanghika school. According to T. R. V. Murti,Brahman
According to Advaita Vedānta, Brahman is the true Self, consciousness, awareness, and the only Reality ('' Sat''). Brahman is ''Paramarthika Satyam'', "Absolute Truth" or absolute Reality. It is That which is unborn and unchanging, and immortal. Other than ''Brahman'', everything else, including the universe, material objects and individuals, are ever-changing and therefore''Vyāvahārika'' (conventional reality) – ''Avidya'' and '
''Avidyā'' (ignorance)
'' Avidyā'' is a central tenet of Shankara's Advaita, and became the main target of Ramanuja's criticism of Shankara. In Shankara's view, avidyā is ''adhyasa'', "the superimposition of the qualities of one thing upon another." As Shankara explains in the ''Adhyasa-bhasya'', the introduction to the ''Brahmasutrabhasya'': Due to ''avidya'', we're steeped in ''loka drsti'', the empirical view. From the beginning we only perceive the empirical world of multiplicity, taking it to be the only and true reality. Due to avidyā there is ignorance, or nescience, of the real Self, ''' (appearance)
In Advaita Vedanta, the perceived empirical world, "including people and other existence," is Māyā, "appearance." Jiva, conditioned by the human mind, is subjected to experiences of a subjective nature, and misunderstands and interprets the physical, changing world as the sole and final reality.HM Vroom (1989), Religions and the Truth: Philosophical Reflections and Perspectives, Eerdmans Publishing, , pp. 122–123 Due to ''avidya'', we take the phenomenal world to be the final reality, while in Reality only ''Sat'' ( True Reality, Brahman) is Real and unchanging. While Shankara took a realistic stance, and his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion," the 13th century scholar Prakasatman, founder of the influential Vivarana school, introduced the notion that the world is illusory. According to Hacker, maya is not a prominent theme for Shankara, in contrast to the later Advaita tradition, and "the word ''maya'' has for hankarahardly any terminological weight."Five ''koshas'' (sheaths)
Due to avidya, atman is covered by ''''Parinamavada'' and ''vivartavada'' - causality and change
Cause and effect are an important topic in all schools of Vedanta. Two sorts of causes are recognised, namely , theMoksha – liberating knowledge of Brahman
Knowledge is liberating
The soteriological goal, in Advaita, is to gain self-knowledge as being in essence (Atman), awareness or witness-consciousness, and complete understanding of the identity of ''jivan-ātman'' and Brahman. Correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is the attainment of ''Brahman'', immortality, and leads to '' moksha'' (liberation) from suffering and ''samsara'', the cycle of rebirth This is stated by Shankara as follows: According to Advaita Vedānta, liberation can be achieved while living, and is called ''Attaining ''vidhya'' (knowledge)
Advaita Vedānta regards the liberated state of being ''Atman-Brahman'' as one's true identity and inherent to being human. According to Shankara and the Vivarana-school, no human action can 'produce' this liberated state, as it is what one already is. As Swami Vivekananda stated: Yet, the Advaita-tradition also emphasizes human effort, the path of Jnana Yoga, a progression of study and training to realize one's true identity as ''Atman-Brahman'' and attain moksha. According to critics of neo-Advaita, which also emphasizes direct insight, traditional Advaita Vedanta entails more than self-inquiry or bare insight into one's real nature, but also includes self-restraint, textual studies and ethical perfection. It is described in classical Advaita books like Shankara's Upadesasahasri and thePreparation: the fourfold qualities
The Advaita student has to develop the fourfold qualities, or behavioral qualifications (''Samanyasa'', ''Sampattis'', ''sādhana-catustaya''): A student is Advaita Vedānta tradition is required to develop these four qualities - # ' (नित्यानित्य वस्तु विवेकम्) – Viveka is the ability to correctly discriminate between the real and eternal (''nitya'') and the substance that is apparently real, illusory, changing and transitory (''anitya''). # ' (इहाऽमुत्रार्थ फल भोगविरागम्) – The renunciation (''virāga'') of all desires of the mind (bhog) for sense pleasures, in this world (iha) and other worlds. Willing to give up everything that is an obstacle to the pursuit of truth and self-knowledge.George Thibaut, , Oxford University Press, Editor: Max Muller, p. 12 with footnote 1 # ' (शमादि षट्क सम्पत्ति) – the sixfold virtues or qualities - ## ''Śama'' - mental tranquility, ability to focus the mind. ## '' Dama'' - self-restraint, the virtue of temperance. restraining the senses. ## ''The threefold practice: ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation)
The Advaita tradition teaches that correct knowledge, which destroys ''avidya'', psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman, is obtained in ''jnanayoga'' through three stages of practice, ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation). This three-step methodology is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the '' Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'': * ''Sravana'', which literally means hearing. The student listens and discusses the ideas, concepts, questions and answers. of the sages on the Upanishads and Advaita Vedānta, studying the Vedantic texts, such as theGuru
Advaita Vedānta school has traditionally had a high reverence for Guru (teacher), and recommends that a competent Guru be sought in one's pursuit of spirituality, though this is not mandatory. Reading of Vedic literature and reflection is the most essential practice. Adi Shankara, states Comans, regularly employed compound words "such as ''Sastracaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the scriptures and the teacher) and ''Vedāntacaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the Upanishads and the teacher) to emphasize the importance of Guru". According to Comans, this reflects the Advaita tradition which holds a competent teacher as important and essential to gaining correct knowledge, freeing oneself from false knowledge, and to self-realization. Nevertheless, in the Bhamati-school the guru has a less essential role, as he can explain the teachings, but the student has to venture its further study. A guru is someone more than a teacher, traditionally a reverential figure to the student, with the ''guru'' serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student.Joel Mlecko (1982)''Pramana'' (means of knowledge)
In classical Indian thought, ''=Samadhi
= The Advaita tradition emphasizes that, since Brahman is ever-present, Brahman-knowledge is immediate and requires no 'action', that is, striving and effort, as articulated by Shankara; yet, it also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice, including yogic samadhi, posing a paradox which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions. Shankara regarded the ''srutis'' as the means of knowledge of Brahman, and he was ambivalent about yogic practices and meditation, which at best may prepare one for ''Brahma-jnana''. According to Rambachan, criticising Vivekananda, Shankara states that the knowledge of Brahman can only be obtained from inquiry of the Shruti, and not by Yoga or samadhi, which at best can only silence the mind. The Bhamati school and the Vivarana school differed on the role of contemplation, but they both "deny the possibility of perceiving supersensuous knowledge through popular yoga techniques." Later Advaita texts like the ''= ''Anubhava'' ('experience')
= The role of ''anubhava'', ''anubhuti'' ("experience," "intuition") as "experience" in gaining ''Brahman-jnana'' is contested. While neo-Vedanta claims a central position for ''anubhava'' as "experience," Shankara himself regarded reliance on textual authority as sufficient for gaining ''Brahman-jnana'', "the intuition of Brahman," and used ''anubhava'' interchangeably with ''pratipatta'', "understanding". Arvind Sharma argues that Shankara's own "direct experience of the ultimate truth" guided him in selecting "those passages of the scriptures that resonate with this experience and will select them as the key with which to open previously closed, even forbidden, doors." The ''''Adhyaropa Apavada'' - imposition and negation
Since Gaudapada, who adopted the Buddhist four-cornered negation which negates any positive predicates of 'the Absolute', a central method in Advaita Vedanta to express the inexpressable is the method called ''Adhyaropa Apavada''. In this method, which was highly estimated by Satchidanandendra Saraswati, a property is imposed (''adhyaropa'') on Atman to convince one of its existence, whereafter the imposition is removed (''apavada'') to reveal the true nature of Atman as nondual and undefinable. In this method, "That which cannot be expressed is expressed through false attribution and subsequent denial." As Shankara writes, "First let me bring them on the right path, and then I will gradually be able to bring them round to the final truth afterwards." For example, Atman, the real "I," is described as witness, giving "it" an attribute to separate it from non-self. Since this implies a duality between observer and observed, next the notion of "witness" is dropped, by showing that the Self cannot be seen and is beyond qualifications, and only that what is remains, without using any words:''adhyAropa apavAda''The ''Mahavyakas'' - the identity of Ātman and Brahman
''Moksha'', liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence ''Atman'', and attaining knowledge of the identity of ''Atman'' and Brahman. According to Shankara, the individual Ātman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical. The real self is ''Sat'', "the Existent," that is, ''Atman-Brahman''. Whereas the difference between Atman and non-Atman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the identity of Atman and Brahman is revealed by the ''shruti'', especially the Upanishadic statement ''tat tvam asi''.=''Mahavakyas''
= According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman''. In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, four of those statements, the '' Mahavakyas'', which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity. They are: * तत्त्वमसि, '' tat tvam asi'', Chandogya VI.8.7. Traditionally rendered as "That Thou Art" (that you are), with '' tat'' in Ch.U.6.8.7 referring to '' sat'', "the Existent"); correctly translated as "That's how husyou are," with ''tat'' in Ch.U.6.12.3, its original location from where it was copied to other verses, referring to "the very nature of all existence as permeated by he finest essence * अहं ब्रह्मास्मि, '' aham brahmāsmi'', Brhadāranyaka I.4.10, "I am Brahman," or "I am Divine." * प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म, ''prajñānam brahma'', Aitareya V.3, "''Prajñānam'' ''is Brahman''." * अयमात्मा ब्रह्म, ''ayamātmā brahma'', Mandukya II, "This Atman is Brahman."=''That you are''
= The longest chapter of Shankara's '' Upadesasahasri'', chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" ('' sat''), and the identity expressed in Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 in the '' mahavakya'' (great sentence) "''tat tvam asi''", "that thou art." In this statement, according to Shankara, ''tat'' refers to Sat'', "the Existent" Existence, Being, or Brahman, the Real, the "Root of the world," the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists. "Tvam" refers to one's real I, ''pratyagatman'' or inner Self, the "direct Witness within everything," "free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies," the essence, ''Atman'', which the individual at the core is.Max Muller=Direct perception versus contemplation of the ''Mahavakyas''
= In the ''Upadesasahasri Shankara'', Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic ''mahavakya''. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing," and rejects ''prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends ''parisamkhyana'', separating ''Atman'' from everything that is not ''Atman'', that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them. Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only ''Atman'' exists, stating that "all the sentences of the ''Upanishads'' concerning non-duality of ''Atman'' should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated." As Mayeda states, "how they 'prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' versus ''parisamkhyana''differ from each other in not known." ''Prasamkhyana'' was advocated by Mandana Misra, the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century. "According to Mandana, the ''mahavakyas'' are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about ''brahmajnana''. The ''Vedanta-vakyas'' convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (''prasamkhyana''). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the ''mahavakyas''. Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra. In contrast, the Vivarana school founded by Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300) follows Shankara closely, arguing that the ''mahavakyas'' are the direct cause of gaining knowledge. Shankara's insistence on direct knowledge as liberating also differs from the '' asparsa yoga'' described in Gaudapada's ''Mandukyakarika'' III.39-46. In this practice of 'non-contact' (''a-=Renouncement of ritualism
= In the ''Upadesasahasri'' Shankara discourages ritual worship such as oblations to ''Deva'' (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from Brahman. The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman". The false notion that ''Atman'' is different from ''Brahman'' is connected with the novice's conviction that (''Upadesasaharsi II.1.25'') Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-''Brahman''," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like. According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove the delusion of a hearer," "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own ''Atman'', the witness of all internal organs," and not from any actions. With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since he use ofrituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity f ''Atman''with the highest ''Atman''."Ethics
Some claim, states Deutsch, "that Advaita turns its back on all theoretical and practical considerations of morality and, if not unethical, is at least 'a-ethical' in character". However, Deutsch adds, ethics ''does'' have a firm place in this philosophy. Its ideology is permeated with ethics and value questions enter into every metaphysical and epistemological analysis, and it considers "an independent, separate treatment of ethics are unnecessary". According to Advaita Vedānta, states Deutsch, there cannot be "any absolute moral laws, principles or duties", instead in its axiological view Atman is "beyond good and evil", and all values result from self-knowledge of the reality of "distinctionless Oneness" of one's real self, every other being and all manifestations of Brahman. Advaitin ethics includes lack of craving, lack of dual distinctions between one's own Self and another being's, good and just Karma. The values and ethics in Advaita Vedānta emanate from what it views as inherent in the state of liberating self-knowledge. This state, according to Rambachan, includes and leads to the understanding that "the self is the self of all, the knower of self sees the self in all beings and all beings in the self." Such knowledge and understanding of the indivisibility of one's and other's Atman, Advaitins believe leads to "a deeper identity and affinity with all". It does not alienate or separate an Advaitin from his or her community, rather awakens "the truth of life's unity and interrelatedness". These ideas are exemplified in the Isha Upanishad – a ''sruti'' for Advaita, as follows: Adi Shankara, in verse 1.25 to 1.26 of his ''Upadeśasāhasrī'', asserts that the Self-knowledge is understood and realized when one's mind is purified by the observation of Yamas (ethical precepts) such as Ahimsa (non-violence, abstinence from injuring others in body, mind and thoughts), Satya (truth, abstinence from falsehood), Asteya (abstinence from theft), Aparigraha (abstinence from possessiveness and craving) and a simple life of meditation and reflection. Rituals and rites can help focus and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge, but can be abandoned when moving on to "hearing, reflection, and meditation on the Upanishads." Elsewhere, in verses 1.26–1.28, the Advaita text Upadesasahasri states the ethical premise of equality of all beings. Any ''Bheda'' (discrimination), states Shankara, based on class or caste or parentage is a mark of inner error and lack of liberating knowledge. This text states that the fully liberated person understands and practices the ethics of non-difference.Texts
The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gitā and''Prasthanatrayi''
The ''Vedānta'' tradition provides exegeses of the '' Upanishads'', the ''Textual authority
The Advaita Vedānta tradition considers the knowledge claims in the Vedas to be the crucial part of the Vedas, not its ''karma-kanda'' (ritual injunctions). The knowledge claims about self being identical to the nature of ''Atman-Brahman'' are found in the Upanishads, which Advaita Vedānta has regarded as "errorless revealed truth." Nevertheless, states Koller, Advaita Vedantins did not entirely rely on revelation, but critically examined their teachings using reason and experience, and this led them to investigate and critique competing theories. Advaita Vedānta, like all orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, accepts as an epistemic premise that Śruti (Vedic literature) is a reliable source of knowledge. The Śruti includes the four Vedas including its four layers of embedded texts – the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads. Of these, the Upanishads are the most referred to texts in the Advaita school. The possibility of different interpretations of the Vedic literature, states Arvind Sharma, was recognized by ancient Indian scholars. The Brahmasutra (also called Vedānta Sutra, composed in 1st millennium BCE) accepted this in verse 1.1.4 and asserts the need for the Upanishadic teachings to be understood not in piecemeal cherrypicked basis, rather in a unified way wherein the ideas in the Vedic texts are harmonized with other means of knowledge such as perception, inference and remainingOther texts
A large number of texts are attributed to Shankara; of these texts, the Brahma Sutra Bhasya (commentary on the Brahma Sutras), the commentaries on the principal Upanishads, and the Upadesasahasri are considered genuine and stand out. Other notable texts attributed to Shankara are theSampradaya and Smarta tradition
Monastic order - Mathas
Advaita Vedānta is not just a philosophical system, but also a tradition ofSmarta Tradition
TheBuddhist influences
Similarities
Advaita Vedānta and various other schools of Hindu philosophy share numerous terminology, doctrines and dialectical techniques with Buddhism. According to a 1918 paper by the Buddhism scholar O. Rozenberg, "a precise differentiation between Brahmanism and Buddhism is impossible to draw." Murti notices that "the ultimate goal" of Vedanta, Samkhya and Mahayana Buddhism is "remarkably similar"; while Advaita Vedanta postulates a "foundational self," "Mahayana Buddhism implicitly affirms the existence of a deep underlying reality behind all empirical manifestations in its conception of '' sunyata'' (the indeterminate, the void), or '' vijnapti-matrata'' (consciousness only), or '' tathata'' (thatness), or '' dharmata'' (noumenal reality)." According to Frank Whaling, the similarities between Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism are not limited to the terminology and some doctrines, but also includes practice. The monastic practices and monk tradition in Advaita are similar to those found in Buddhism.Mahayana influences
The influence of Mahayana Buddhism on Advaita Vedānta has been significant. Sharma points out that the early commentators on the Brahma Sutras were all realists, orDifferences from Buddhism
The Advaita Vedānta tradition has historically rejected accusations of crypto-Buddhism highlighting their respective views on ''Atman'', ''Anatta'' and ''Brahman''. Yet, some Buddhist texts chronologically placed in the 1st millennium of common era, such as the Mahayana tradition's ''Tathāgatagarbha sūtras'' suggest self-like concepts, variously called ''Tathagatagarbha'' or ''Criticisms of concurring Hindu schools
Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its ''Maya'' and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism. sometimes referring to the Advaita-tradition as ''Māyāvāda''. Ramanuja, the founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedānta, accused Adi Shankara of being a ''Prachanna Bauddha'', that is, a "crypto-Buddhist", and someone who was undermining theistic Bhakti devotionalism. The non-Advaita scholar Bhaskara of the Bhedabheda Vedānta tradition, similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara's Advaita as "this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists", and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy.Relationship with other forms of Vedānta
The Advaita Vedānta ideas, particularly of 8th century Adi Shankara, were challenged by theistic Vedānta philosophies that emerged centuries later, such as the 11th-century Vishishtadvaita (qualified nondualism) of Ramanuja, and the 14th-century Dvaita (theistic dualism) of Madhvacharya. Their application of Vedanta philosophy to ground their faith turned Vedanta into a major factor in India's religious landscape.Vishishtadvaita
Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita school and Shankara's Advaita school are both nondualism Vedānta schools,J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008)Shuddhadvaita
Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 CE), the proponent of the philosophy ofDvaita
Madhvacharya was also a critic of Advaita Vedānta. Advaita's nondualism asserted that Atman (Self) and Brahman are identical, there is interconnected oneness of all Selfs and Brahman, and there are no pluralities. Madhva in contrast asserted that Atman (Self) and Brahman are different, onlyInfluence on other traditions
Within the ancient and medieval texts of Hindu traditions, such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism, the ideas of Advaita Vedānta have had a major influence. Advaita Vedānta influenced Krishna Vaishnavism in the different parts of India. One of its most popular text, the '' Bhagavata Purana'', adopts and integrates in Advaita Vedānta philosophy. The ''Bhagavata Purana'' is generally accepted by scholars to have been composed in the second half of 1st millennium CE. In the ancient and medieval literature of Shaivism, called the '' Āgamas'', the influence of Advaita Vedānta is once again prominent. Of the 92 ''Āgamas'', ten are '' Dvaita'' texts, eighteen are '' Bhedabheda'', and sixty-four are '' Advaita'' texts. According to Natalia Isaeva, there is an evident and natural link between 6th-century Gaudapada's Advaita Vedānta ideas and Kashmir Shaivism. Shaktism, the Hindu tradition where a goddess is considered identical to Brahman, has similarly flowered from a syncretism of the monist premises of Advaita Vedānta and dualism premises of Samkhya–Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, sometimes referred to as ''Shaktadavaitavada'' (literally, the path of nondualistic ''Shakti''). Other influential ancient and medieval classical texts of Hinduism such as the '' Yoga Yajnavalkya'', '' Yoga Vashishta'', '' Avadhuta Gitā'', '' Markandeya Purana'' and '' Sannyasa Upanishads'' predominantly incorporate premises and ideas of Advaita Vedānta.History of Advaita Vedānta
Historiography
The historiography of Advaita Vedanta is coloured by Orientalist notions, while modern formulations of Advaita Vedānta, which developed as a reaction to western Orientalism andEarly Vedānta
The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedānta gives an interpretation. The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments". This philosophical inquiry was performed by the darsanas, the various philosophical schools. TheEarly Advaita Vedānta
Two Advaita writings predating Maṇḍana Miśra and Shankara were known to scholars such as Nakamura in the first half of 20th-century, namely the ''Vākyapadīya'', written byGauḍapāda and '
According to tradition, Gauḍapāda (6th century) was the teacher ofEarly medieval period - Maṇḍana Miśra and Adi Shankara
Maṇḍana Miśra
Maṇḍana Miśra, an older contemporary of Shankara, was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of Kumarila, but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era, the ''Brahma-siddhi''. According to Fiordalis, he was influenced by the Yoga-tradition, and with that indiractly by Buddhism, given the strong influence of Buddhism on the Yoga-tradition. For a couple of centuries he seems to have been regarded as "the most important representative of the Advaita position," and the "theory of error" set forth in the ''Brahma-siddhi'' became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error.Adi Shankara
Very little is known about Shankara. According to Dalal, "Hagiographical accounts of his life, the '' Śaṅkaravijayas'' ("Conquests of Śaṅkara"), were composed several centuries after his death," in the 14th to 17th century, and established Shankara as a rallying symbol of valuesin a time when most of India was conquered by Muslims. He is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedānta school, but was actually a systematizer, not a founder.=Systematizer of Advaita thought
= Shankara was a scholar who synthesized and systematized ''Advaita-vāda'' thought which already existed at his lifetime. According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara". According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works, synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita. According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita Vedānta in the 8th century, reforming Badarayana's Vedānta tradition. According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedānta, yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India." Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with ''moksha'', "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology," following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher." Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic ..though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought."=Writings
= Adi Shankara is best known for his reviews and commentaries (''Bhasyas'') on ancient Indian texts. His ''Brahmasutrabhasya'' (literally, commentary on=Influence of Shankara
= While Shankara has an unparalleled status in the history of Advaita Vedanta, scholars have questioned the traditional narrative of Shankara's early influence in India. Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Maṇḍana Miśra, who was considered to be the major representative of Advaita. Only when Vacaspati Misra, an influential student of Maṇḍana Miśra, harmonised the teachings of Shankara with those of Maṇḍana Miśra, Shankara's teachings gained prominence. Some modern Advaitins argue that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, and that only his student Suresvara, who's had little influence, represents Shankara correctly. In this view, Shankara's influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara, while his views were manitained by the Suresvara school. According to Satchidanandendra Sarasvati, "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and Bhaskara." Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought; Vedanta became a major influence when Vedanta philosophy was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines, such as Ramanuja (11th c.), who aligned bhakti, "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views.Encyclopædia BritannicaAdvaita Vedanta sub-schools
Two defunct schools are the ''Pancapadika'' and ''Istasiddhi'', which were replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school. The still existing Bhāmatī and Vivarana developed in the 11th-14th century. These schools worked out the logical implications of various Advaita doctrines. Two of the problems they encountered were the further interpretations of the concepts of māyā and avidya. Padmapada (c. 800 CE), the founder of the defunct Pancapadika school, was a direct disciple of Shankara. He wrote the ''Pancapadika'', a commentary on the ''Sankara-bhaya''. Padmapada diverged from Shankara in his description of ''avidya'', designating ''prakrti'' as ''avidya'' or ''ajnana''. Sureśvara (fl. 800–900 CE) was a contemporary of Shankara, and often (incorrectly) identified with Maṇḍana Miśra. Sureśvara has also been credited as the founder of a pre-Shankara branch of Advaita Vedānta. Mandana Mishra's student Vachaspati Miśra (9th/10th century CE), who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view, wrote the '' Bhamati'', a commentary on Shankara's ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'', and the ''Brahmatattva-samiksa'', a commentary on Mandana Mishra's ''Brahma-siddhi''. His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Miśra, and harmonises Shankara's thought with that of Mandana Miśra.The Bhamati and Vivarana SchoolsLate medieval India
Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan note that Shankara is very well-studied, but "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedānta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period." While indologists like Paul Hacker and Wilhelm Halbfass took Shankara's system as the measure for an "orthodox" Advaita Vedānta, the living Advaita Vedānta tradition in medieval times was influenced by, and incorporated elements from, the yogic tradition and texts like the '' Yoga Vasistha'' and the ''Bhagavata Purana''. Yoga and samkhya had become minor schools of thought since the time of Shankara, and no longer posed a thread for the sectarian identity of Advaita, in contrast to the Vaishnava traditions. The ''Yoga Vasistha'' became an authoritative source text in the Advaita vedānta tradition in the 14th century, and the "yogic Advaita" of Vidyāraņya's ''Jivanmuktiviveka'' (14th century) was influenced by the ''(Laghu-)Yoga-Vasistha'', which in turn was influenced by Kashmir Shaivism. Vivekananda's 19th century emphasis on ''nirvikalpa samadhi'' was preceded by medieval yogic influences on Advaita Vedānta. In the 16th and 17th centuries, some Nath and hatha yoga texts also came within the scope of the developing Advaita Vedānta tradition. According to Nicholson, it was with the arrival of Islamic rule, first in the form of Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire, and the subsequent persecution of Indian religions, that Hindu scholars began a self-conscious attempts to define an identity and unity. Between the twelfth and the fourteenth century, according to Andrew Nicholson, this effort emerged with a classification of astika and nastika systems of Indian philosophies. Certain thinkers, according to Nicholson, began to retrospectively classify ancient thought into "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.Vidyāraṇya
It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established. Advaita Vedanta's position as most influential Hindu ''darsana'' took shape as Advaitins in the Vijayanagara Empire competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect. Central in this repositioning was Vidyāraṇya, also known as Madhava, who was the Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mādhava Āchārya". Encyclopædia Britannica. and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire. He inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India, in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate, but his efforts were also targeted at Srivaisnava groups, especially '' Visistadvaita'', which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire. Sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system, and Vidyaranya efforts were aimed at promoting Advaita Vedanta. Most of Shankara's biographies were created and published from the 14th to the 17th century, such as the widely cited ''Śankara-vijaya'', in which legends were created to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his ''digvijaya'' ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror." Vidyaranya and his brothers wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible. In his doxography '' Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha'' ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all ''darsanas'', presenting the other ''darsanas'' as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system. The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visitadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance. Bhedabheda wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy." Vidyaranya became head of Sringeri ''matha'', proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself. Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support, and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (''mathas'') to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.Modern Advaita
Niścaldās and "Greater" Advaita
Michael S. Allen has written on the influence and popularity of Advaita Vedanta in early modern north India, especially on the work of the Advaita Dādū-panthī monk Niścaldās (ca. 1791–1863), author of ''The Ocean of Inquiry'' (Hindi: Vicār-sāgar), a vernacular compendium of Advaita.Allen, Michael S. Greater Advaita Vedānta: The Case of Niścaldās. ''International Journal of Hindu Studies'' 21 (3):275-297 (2017). https://philpapers.org/rec/ALLGAV According to Allen, the work of Niścaldās "was quite popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: it was translated into over eight languages and was once referred to by Vivekananda as having 'more influence in India than anyNeo-Vedanta
According to King, with the consolidation of the British imperialist rule the new rulers started to view Indians through the "colonially crafted lenses" of Orientalism. In response Hindu nationalism emerged, striving for socio-political independence and countering the influence of Christian missionaries. Among the colonial era intelligentsia the monistic Advaita Vedānta has been a major ideological force for Hindu nationalism, with Hindu intellectuals formulating a "humanistic, inclusivist" response, now called Neo-Vedānta, attempting to respond to this colonial stereotyping of "Indian culture sbackward, superstitious and inferior to the West." Due to the influence of Vidyaranya's ''Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha'', early Indologists regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads. Vedānta came to be regarded, both by westerners as by Indian nationalists, as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedānta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion" and umbrella of "inclusivism". Colonial era Indian thinkers, such as Vivekananda, presented Advaita Vedānta as an inclusive universal religion, a spirituality that in part helped organize a religiously infused identity. It also aided the rise of Hindu nationalism as a counter weight to Islam-infused Muslim communitarian organizations such as theContemporary Advaita Vedānta
Contemporary teachers are the orthodox Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham; the more traditional teachersInfluence on New religious movements
Advaita Vedānta has gained attention in western spirituality and New Age as nondualism, where various traditions are seen as driven by the same non-dual experience. Nonduality points to "a primordial, natural awareness without subject or object". It is also used to refer to interconnectedness, "the sense that all things are interconnected and not separate, while at the same time all things retain their individuality". '' Neo-Advaita'' is a New Religious Movement based on a popularised, western interpretation of Advaita Vedānta and the teachings of Ramana Maharshi. Neo-Advaita is being criticised for discarding the traditional prerequisites of knowledge of the scriptures and "See also
* Cause and effect in Advaita Vedānta * Kashmir Shaivism * Pandeism * PantheismNotes
References
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;Primary texts * Robert HumeExternal links
{{Commons category * Sangeetha Menon (2007)