Ayyanar (
IAST
The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
: Aiyaṉār, ta, ஐயனார்) is a
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
deity venerated in
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
and
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
. His worship is prevalent among the
Dravidian peoples.
Some studies suggest that Ayyanar may have also been worshipped in Southeast Asian countries in the past. He is primarily worshipped as one of the
guardian folk deities of Tamil Nadu. The temples of Ayyanar in the countryside are usually flanked by gigantic and colourful statues of him and his companions riding horses or elephants.
Etymology
The
Tamil word ''Ayyanār'' is derived from the root word ''Ayya'', a honorific used in a
Tamil language
Tamil (; ' , ) is a Dravidian language natively spoken by the Tamil people of South Asia. Tamil is an official language of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, the sovereign nations of Sri Lanka and Singapore, and the Indian territory of Pudu ...
to designate respected one.
[Indrapala, K., ''The evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils in Sri Lanka C. 300 BCE to C. 1200 CE'', p.#] Some people propose that ''Aryan'' could be the Sanskrit version of Tamil word ''Aiyyan'' which means the same.
[ There is a well known temple dedicated to Sastha situated in a village of ]Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
, called "Aryankavu
Aryankavu is a village located in the Kollam district of the Indian state of Kerala. It lies close to the border between Kerala and Tamil Nadu near Thenmala. It is also one of the famous pilgrimage sites associated with the legend of Sabarimala ...
". Another name of Ayyanar, Sastha,[ meets the same dispute. Although he appears as Sastha in Sanskrit scriptures, ancient Tamil records mention him as ''Chattan'' (சாத்தன், Cāttaṉ). Though Śāstā is the term especially used to indicate Ayyanar nowadays, there are two other deities known in the same name. ]Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
is also called ''Sastha'' and ''Brahma-Śāstā'' is another name for Murugan
Kartikeya ( sa, कार्त्तिकेय, Kārttikeya), also known as Skanda, Subrahmanya, Shanmukha (), and Murugan ( ta, முருகன்), is the Hindu god of war. He is the son of Parvati and Shiva, the brother of Ganesha ...
. Sastha is a generic Sanskrit term for a teacher.
Development
There are very few pieces of evidence to reconstruct the origin and development of Ayyanar. Since Sastha is the synonym of Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
, some researchers assume Chattan could have entered the Tamil country with Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
.[ The earliest references to Ayyanar were discovered in the ]hero stone
A hero stone (Vīragallu in Kannada, Naṭukal in Tamil) is a memorial commemorating the honorable death of a hero in battle. Erected between the second half of the first millennium BC and the 18th century AD, hero stones are found all over India ...
s of hunting chieftains from Arcot
Arcot (natively spelt as Ārkāḍu) is a town and urban area of Ranipet district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. Located on the southern banks of Palar River, the city straddles a trade route between Chennai and Bangalore or Salem, between t ...
, Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
dated back to the 3rd century C.E. The phrase in the inscriptions which could be translated into "Ayyanappan; a shrine to Cattan" confirms that Ayyan and Chattan were the names of a single deity. A rock carving of a man and horse in the Isurumuniya
Isurumuniya is a Buddhist temple situated near to the Tissa Wewa (Tisa tank) in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. There are four carvings of special interest in this Vihara. They are the Isurumuniya Lovers, Elephant Pond and The Royal Family.
History ...
Buddhist temple of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
, is identified with Ayyanar. Sinhala Buddhists of Sri Lanka praise him in the form of a folk deity called ''Ayyanayake'' to the date.![Isurumuniya_Man_and_the_Horse_Head](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Isurumuniya_Man_and_the_Horse_Head.jpg)
Sanskrit Sources
Sastha started to appear in Sanskrit sources from the 7th century CE after Brahmanda Purana
The ''Brahmanda Purana'' ( sa, ब्रह्माण्ड पुराण, ) is a Sanskrit text and one of the eighteen major Puranas, a genre of Hindu texts. It is listed as the eighteenth Maha-Purana in almost all the anthologies. The text ...
. It narrates the history of Hariharasuta, son of Hari
Hari ( sa, हरि) is among the primary epithets of the Hindu preserver deity Vishnu, meaning 'the one who takes away' (sins). It refers to the one who removes darkness and illusion, the one who removes all obstacles to spiritual progress ...
and Hara
Hara may refer to:
Art and entertainment
* Hara (band), a Romanian pop-band
* ''Hara'' (film), a 2014 Kannada-language drama film
* ''Hara'' (sculpture), a 1989 artwork by Deborah Butterfield
* Goo Hara (1991-2019), South Korean idol singer
...
, who was born to Shiva during his copulation with Mohini
Mohini (Sanskrit: मोहिनी, ') is the Hindu goddess of enchantment. She is the only female avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. She is portrayed as a '' femme fatale'', an enchantress, who maddens lovers and demons, sometimes leading them ...
, the feminised form of Vishnu, after the churning of the milk sea.[ Sivagama corpus of southern ]Shaiva Siddhanta
Shaiva Siddhanta () (Tamil: சைவ சித்தாந்தம் "Caiva cittāntam") is a form of Shaivism that propounds a dualistic philosophy where the ultimate and ideal goal of a being is to become an enlightened soul through Shiv ...
including ''Pūrva Kāraṇa, Amṣūmatbhēda, Suprabhēda'', also have many references to the iconography of Sastha. Other Hindu Saivite texts viz. ''Ishana Siva Guru Paddhati, Kulala Sastragama and Shilparatna
{{Use Indian English, date=December 2019
Shilparatna is a classical text on traditional South Indian representational-performing arts. It is particularly influential in painting and theatrical performance. It was authored by Srikumara in 16th cen ...
'' explain his worship and iconography briefly.
Tamil Sources
According to Fred Clothey, ''Aiyanar'' is a Tamil adaptation of ''Aiyan'', the chief deity of Ay chieftains who ruled parts of Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
and Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
, the then Tamilakam
Tamiḻakam (Tamil: தமிழகம்; Malayalam: തമിഴകം), refers to the geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people, covering the southernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. Tamilakam covered today's Tamil Nad ...
. He also states that the term ''aayar'' meaning a cow herder and a protector is an appropriate appellation for both the ''Ay'' chieftains and their clan deity.[Smith, B. L., ''Religion and Legitimacy of power in South Asia'', p.6] Tamil Sangam literature
The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam'';) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ'') connotes ...
often mention poets and traders with the name ''Chattan'', who might have revered Sastha as their clan deity.
Tamil epic Silappatikaram
''Cilappatikāram'' ( ta, சிலப்பதிகாரம் ml, ചിലപ്പതികാരം,IPA: ʧiləppət̪ikɑːrəm, ''lit.'' "the Tale of an Anklet"), also referred to as ''Silappathikaram'' or ''Silappatikaram'', is the e ...
, probably dated to the 4th century CE, records the temples and devotees of Cattan.[ ]Appar
Appar, also referred to as ( ta, திருநாவுக்கரசர்) or Navukkarasar, was a seventh-century Tamil Śaiva poet-saint. Born in a peasant Śaiva family, raised as an orphan by his sister, he lived about 80 years and is ...
(7th century CE), Saivite
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...
Nayanar and one of the initiators of the Tamil Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
, praises Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
as the father of Chattan in his Tevaram
The ''Thevaram'' ( ta, தேவாரம், ), also spelled ''Tevaram'', denotes the first seven volumes of the twelve-volume collection ''Tirumurai'', a Śaiva narrative of epic and puranic heroes, as well as a hagiographic account of early ...
(Tirumurai
''Thirumurai'' (Tamil: திருமுறை, meaning holy division) is a twelve-volume compendium of songs or hymns in praise of Shiva in the Tamil language from the 6th to the 11th century CE by various poets in Tamil Nadu. Nambiyand ...
, 4:32:4).[Williams, J., ''Kaladarsana'', p.62] ''Periya Puranam
The ''Periya purāṇam'' (Tamil: பெரிய புராணம்), that is, the ''great purana'' or epic, sometimes called ''Tiruttontarpuranam'' ("Tiru-Thondar-Puranam", the Purana of the Holy Devotees), is a Tamil poetic ...
'', a Tamil Saivite epic of the 12th century CE tells that Aiyanar at Tiruppidavur revealed the Tamil song of Cheraman Perumal
Perumal (the 'Great One') is the name of a Hindu deity.
It was also a medieval Indian royal title of:
*Western Ganga dynasty Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 171.
**Sripurusha
**Rajamalla
**Nitim ...
, a Nayanar-cum - Chera king (800—844 CE) which was composed at Madhya Kailash
Madhya Kailash ( ta, மத்திய கைலாசம்), also known as Nadukkayilai in Tamil, is a Hindu temple in South Chennai, located at the junction between Sardar Patel Road, Adyar and Rajiv Gandhi Salai. It is located opposite t ...
. From the Chola period (9th century) onwards the popularity of Aiyanar became even more pronounced and so many bronze images of him are available from this period.[ Tamil ]Nighantu ( sa, निघण्टु, ) is a Sanskrit term for a traditional collection of words, grouped into thematic categories, often with brief annotations. Such collections share characteristics with glossaries and thesauri, but are not true lexicon ...
s (proto-glossaries) such as ''Piṅkalantai'' (11th century CE) and ''Cūṭāmaṇi Nighaṇṭu'' (1520 CE) have explicitly recorded the characteristics of Sastha.
''Kanda purānam'', 14th century Tamil version of Skanda Purana
The ''Skanda Purana'' (IAST: Skanda Purāṇa) is the largest ''Puranas#Mahapuranas, Mukyapurana'', a genre of eighteen Hindu religious texts. The text contains over 81,000 verses, and is of Kaumaram, Kaumara literature, titled after Kartikeya ...
narrates the history of Aiyanar in which seconds the story told in Brahmanda purana. Here Ayyan, Kanda puranam tells, sends his chief commander Mahakala
Mahākāla is a deity common to Hinduism and Tantric Buddhism. In Buddhism, Mahākāla is regarded as the sacred '' Dharmapāla'' ("Protector of the Dharma"), while in Hinduism, Mahākāla is a fierce manifestation of the Hindu god Shiva and th ...
to protect Indrani
Indrani (Sanskrit: इन्द्राणी, IAST: ''Indrāṇī, lit.'' Indra's queen), also known as Shachi (Sanskrit: शची, IAST: ''Śacī''), is the queen of the devas in Hinduism. Described as tantalisingly beautiful, proud and ki ...
from the demon Surapadman. Mahakala chops down the hands of Ajamukhi, sister of Surapadman, who tried to abduct Indrani for her brother.
Iconography
The famous iconography of Aiyan shows him alone, carrying a Chentu
A chentu ( ta, செண்டு) is a horse whip which looks like a crooked stick, and is a typical attribute of Aiyanar, Krishna in his aspect as Rajagopala, and Shiva with Nandi. The attribute of chentu, which is etymologically derived from a ...
(செண்டு, crooked stick) in his right hand. Sometimes a whip, stick, sword or scepter can be seen in his hand. While he manifests in a squat position, A meditation band known as Yogapaţţam or Vāgupaţţai will present around his knees and waist. ''Pingalantai Nighantu'', ''Kanda Puranam'' and Chola bronzes describe his mount as a white elephant. The horse is another mount abundantly seen in his local temples. Some texts have mentioned the blue horse and bull as his mount as well. After the popularity of the Ayyappan cult, the tiger is also identified as the mount of Sastha.
According to ''Cūṭāmaṇi Nighaṇṭu'', Sastha wears black garments and reddish garlands. His body is smeared with yellow paste and he carries a sword in his hand. In ''Kārana Agama'', he sits on a throne with his right leg folded while his left leg is hanging down. He is usually depicted having blue or black complexion. Although his two armed form is common, some texts describe his forms with four or eight arms. ''Amsumadbheda Agama'' describes his four arms carrying Abhaya, Varada
The Varada River (Verada River) is a river in central Karnataka, India. It is a tributary of the Tungabhadra River.
Geography
The Varada river originates near Vardamoola in Sagara of Karnataka. It flows through the Western Ghats and ent ...
, sword and shield. In ''Ishana Siva Guru Paddhati,'' he is visualized as carrying an arrow, bow, knife and sword.
Other records on Ayyanar tell that he is accompanied by his two wives popularly known as Purana and Pushkala.[ Purna (on his right) is dark complexioned and carries Varamudra in her right hand and blue lotus in the left. Pushkala (on his left) is yellow complexioned and holds a noose in her right hand. '']Shilparatna
{{Use Indian English, date=December 2019
Shilparatna is a classical text on traditional South Indian representational-performing arts. It is particularly influential in painting and theatrical performance. It was authored by Srikumara in 16th cen ...
'' describes him with only one wife called Prabha and their eight years old lad known as Satyakan[
Folklore regards Aiyan as the guardian of the villages, riding on either an elephant or horse. He carries a bow and arrow to save his devotees. ]Pavadairayan
Pavadairayan is a Dravidian folk and Hindu deity worshipped in rural Tamil Nadu. He is considered to be a kaval deivam, and best recognised for serving as a general for the deity Aiyanar.
Legend
The deity is associated with the myth of t ...
, Karuppasamy and Madurai Veeran
Madurai Veeran, also known as Veeran, is a Tamil folk deity popular in southern Tamil Nadu, India. His name literally means, "warrior of Madurai".
Legend
According to the ''Maduraiveeraswamikathai'', Veeran was born to royal parents and w ...
are his attendants. Aiyanar images installed in villages are usually gigantic and they are identical with the Bhuta like iconography of Sastha given in ''Subrabheda Agama''. In rural areas, Aiyanar is often represented with an escort, usually composed of the god's vassals, sometimes comprising demons. Consistent with this practice, terracotta
Terracotta, terra cotta, or terra-cotta (; ; ), in its material sense as an earthenware substrate, is a clay-based ceramic glaze, unglazed or glazed ceramic where the pottery firing, fired body is porous.
In applied art, craft, construction, a ...
horses are usually placed outside the temple. These are given up to the god as steeds for his night time perambulations.
Connections with Ayyappan
A deity named "Ayyappan" is not recorded in any early Tamil/Sanskrit sources though the name ''Ayyappan'' appears as synonymous with (Vediya) Sastha in Tiruvalla copper plates
Thiruvalla copper plates, also known as the Huzur Treasury Plates, are a collection of medieval temple committee resolutions found at the Sreevallabha Temple, Thiruvalla, Kerala.Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): ...
of the 12th century CE and Kanyakumari Guhanathaswami Kovil Inscription. Neither Ayyappa nor Sabarimala is known as a pilgrim spot in the Tamil region before the 1940s. According to researchers Eliza Kent, Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai, the legends in the Ayyappa tradition seem to be "artificially mixed and assembled into a kind of collage" and "he should have emerged from a Dravidian god of tribal provenance".
It has been claimed that the above mentioned Dravidian tribal god is none other than Ayyanar. Sabarimala Sthala Puranam, a recent purana, says that Ayyappan
Ayyappan an incarnation of dharma sastha, also called Manikandan, is a Hindu deity popular in Southern India, He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth, and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil.
Although devotion t ...
is the avatar
Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearanc ...
of Ayyanar; the name Ayyappan has been described as a combination of Ayyan (Ayyanar) + Appan (father). Yogapatta bar around the knees of Ayyappan is the distinct character that can be seen in the Ayyanar statues of the Chola period. The horse mount of Aiyanar is still visible in the flag staff of Sabarimala
The Sabarimala Temple (; ml, ശബരിമല ക്ഷേത്രം) is a temple complex located at Sabarimala hill inside the Periyar Tiger Reserve in the Perinad Village, Pathanamthitta district, Kerala, India. It is one of the largest ...
Ayyappan
Ayyappan an incarnation of dharma sastha, also called Manikandan, is a Hindu deity popular in Southern India, He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth, and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil.
Although devotion t ...
temple. The synonym Sastha of Ayyappan is obviously the same as that of Ayyanar. Another important association is the presence of Karuppa samy
Karuppu Sami (Tamil: கருப்பசாமி, IAST: Karuppasāmi) is one of the regional Tamil male deities popular among the rural social groups of Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala. He is one of the 21 associated folk-deities, and is henc ...
in the worship of both deities.
Legend suggests that the image of Sabarimala Ayyappan was consecrated by Parashurama
Parashurama (), also referred to as Rama Jamadagnya, Rama Bhargava and Veerarama, is the sixth avatar among the Dashavatara of the preserver god Vishnu in Hinduism. He is believed to be one of the ''Chiranjeevis'' (Immortals), who will appear ...
. However the Sanskrit inscription in the image says that it was installed in Kollam Era
The Malayalam Calendar is a sidereal solar calendar used in Kerala. The origin of the calendar has been dated to 825 CE, the beginning of the Kollam Era.
There are many theories regarding the origin of the era, but according to recent schola ...
1085 (1910 CE) by Prabhakaracharya. Tamil devotees did not discriminate Ayyappan with Ayyanar and they believe that Ayyappan is the avatar of Ayyanar.[ It can be noted that Sri Lankan Ayyanar temples are being converted into Ayyappan temples following the outbreak of Sabarimala pilgrimage of Sri Lankan devotees in recent years.
]
Worship
Many temples are dedicated to Ayyanar can be seen all over South India as well as Sri Lanka. Almost all villages of Tamil Nadu would have an Aiyanar kovil. Ayyanar shrines are usually located at the peripheries or boundaries of rural villages and the deity is seen riding a horse with a sword or whip. Ayyanar has both types of temples - temples constructed in Agamic style and non-Agamic open air shrines. Ayyanar in Agamic temple is usually called Sastha or Dharma sastha.[ Kerala retains its Ayyanar temples as Sastha temples. The attendant priest for Aiyanar is generally from the potter caste who fashions idols and clay horses, although it is not uncommon for priests from other castes to officiate in the Ayyanar temples.][Mudumby Narasimhachary (Ed) (1976). Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya, Issue 160 of Gaekwad's Oriental Series. Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.] Many castes of Tamil Nadu worship Ayyanar as their Kula deivam.
Image Gallery
File:Ayyannar Temple Horse.jpg, Front view of an Ayyanar Kovil, Perambalur, Tamil Nadu.
File:Aiyanar 2 épouses 01397.JPG, Ayyanar and his two consorts, 15 - 17th century CE, Châlons-en-Champagne French Museum
File:Ayyanar idols near Gobichettipalayam.jpg, Ayyanar sculptures at Gopichettipalayam
File:Madurai si0704.jpg, Ayyanar on horse, Madurai
File:Mampatti Sri Kadukavalar Temple.jpg, White elephant mount at Agamic Ayyanar temple, Mampatti
File:Kattuvalli ayya view.JPG, Kattuvalli Ayyan Kovil, Kerala
File:Ayyannar Car.jpg, Ayyannar Car festival, Thungapuram
Thungapuram (''Tunkapuram'' or ''Kulōttuŋkacōļapuram'' or ''Ciṛu Maturai'') is a panchayat village of Perambalur district, Tamil Nadu, India. It was formerly in Tiruchirappalli district
Politics
Before in 1995 Thungapuram have under Pera ...
File:Kurukkalmadam Ayyanar.jpg, A name board of an Ayyanar Kovil at Kurukkalmadam
Kurukkalmadam is a village in district Batticaloa of Sri Lanka. It is located about 25 km south east of Batticaloa and located in Kaluwanchikudy-Manmunai South D S at about 5 km north of town Kaluwanchikudy. Its earlier name was Guruand ...
, Batticaloa
Batticaloa ( ta, மட்டக்களப்பு, ''Maṭṭakkaḷappu''; si, මඩකලපුව, ''Maḍakalapuwa'') is a major city in the Eastern Province, Sri Lanka, and its former capital. It is the administrative capital of the B ...
File:Ayyanarappan.jpg
See also
* Ayyappan
Ayyappan an incarnation of dharma sastha, also called Manikandan, is a Hindu deity popular in Southern India, He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth, and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil.
Although devotion t ...
* Karuppu Sami
Karuppu Sami (Tamil: கருப்பசாமி, IAST: Karuppasāmi) is one of the regional Tamil male deities popular among the rural social groups of Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala. He is one of the 21 associated folk-deities, and is henc ...
* Village deities of Tamil Nadu
The village deities of Southern India are the numerous spirits and other beings venerated as part of the Dravidian folk tradition in villages throughout South India. These deities, mainly goddesses, are intimately associated with the well-being ...
* Shasta (deity)
Shasta (IAST Śāstā) is a Hindu deity of Dravidian origin, usually associated with Shiva and Vishnu. In Hindu mythology, Shasta is considered to be another name of Ayyappan, described as the offspring of Shiva and Mohini. His principal fu ...
Notes
References
*
*
*
* Mark Jarzombek
Mark Jarzombek (born 1954) is a United States-born architectural historian, author and critic. Since 1995 he has taught and served within the History Theory Criticism Section of the Department of Architecture at MIT School of Architecture and P ...
"Horse Shrines in Tamil India: Reflections on Modernity"
Future Anterior, (4/1), pp 18–36.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
Aiyanar to Ayappa (PDF)
{{HinduMythology
Regional Hindu gods
Tamil deities