''Avodah Zarah'' (
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
: , or "foreign worship", meaning "
idolatry" or "strange service") is the name of a
tractate of the
Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
, located in ''
Nezikin
''Nezikin'' ( he, נזיקין ''Neziqin'', "Damages") or ''Seder Nezikin'' (, "The Order of Damages") is the fourth Order of the Mishna (also the Tosefta and Talmud). It deals largely with Jewish criminal and civil law and the Jewish court s ...
'', the fourth Order of the Talmud dealing with
damages
At common law, damages are a remedy in the form of a monetary award to be paid to a claimant as compensation for loss or injury. To warrant the award, the claimant must show that a breach of duty has caused foreseeable loss. To be recognised at ...
. The main topic of the tractate is laws pertaining to Jews living amongst
Gentile
Gentile () is a word that usually means "someone who is not a Jew". Other groups that claim Israelite heritage, notably Mormons, sometimes use the term ''gentile'' to describe outsiders. More rarely, the term is generally used as a synonym fo ...
s, including regulations about the interaction between Jews and "avodei ha kochavim", which literally interpreted is "Worshipers of the stars", but is most often translated as "idolaters", "pagans", or "heathen."
Mishna
The tractate consists of five chapters. The number of
mishnayot
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Torah ...
is according to the standard numbering; however, different versions split up the individual mishnayot, or combine them, and the chapter breaks may vary, as well.
Chapter One (nine mishnayot) deals with the prohibition of trade with idolaters around their festivals, such as
Saturnalia and
Kalenda (so as not to be complicit in the festive idolatry) and with the items that are forbidden to be sold to idolaters (which is basically any item that the idolater is likely to offer in an idolatrous service or commit an immoral act with). Thus, the main biblical commandment explored in the chapter is ''
lifnei iver
In Judaism, Lifnei Iver (Hebrew: לִפְנֵי עִוֵּר, "Before the Blind") is a Hebrew expression defining a prohibition against misleading people by use of a " stumbling block," or allowing a person to proceed unawares in unsuspecting dang ...
'', "before the blind, thou shalt not lay a stumbling block". A Jew who helps a gentile to worship idols is facilitating sin.
Chapter Two (seven mishnayot) deals with precautions against the violence and immorality of idolaters, and the items that are forbidden/permitted to be bought from idolaters. These include categories of objects that may be by-products of idolatrous services, as well as foods with a difficulty in identifying their
kashrut status, such as cheese produced by Gentiles in
skin-bottles of animals that had been improperly butchered, or else curdled with
rennet from a carcass; or
fish stock produced by Gentiles and which may contain unclean fish. This chapter also deals with the prohibition against a Jew helping to deliver or nurse a gentile child, so as to not bring an idol-worshiper into the world. This prohibition can be eased in cases where refusal would cause enmity towards Jews, unless an excuse to refuse can be made.
Chapter Three (ten mishnayot) deals with the laws of various images/idols and the
asherah
Asherah (; he, אֲשֵׁרָה, translit=Ăšērā; uga, 𐎀𐎘𐎗𐎚, translit=ʾAṯiratu; akk, 𒀀𒅆𒋥, translit=Aširat; Qatabanian: ') in ancient Semitic religion, is a fertility goddess who appears in a number of ancient ...
(idolatrous tree). Thus, it details the distinctions between forbidden and permitted use of various aspects and states of idolatrous items.
Chapter Four (twelve mishnayot) deals with benefit from the auxiliary items of a markulis (Mercury, a Roman deity consisting of a heap of stones whereby worship consisted of throwing stones, and thus adding to the heap) and other idols, the nullification of an idol (effected by an idolater deliberately defacing his/her idol), and the laws detailing the prohibition of the use and benefit of
Yayin Nesech (gentile wine suspected of being used in idol worship).
Chapter Five (twelve mishnayot) continues detailing the prohibitions on yayin nesech, libations. This forms the basis for rabbinic commands governing
kosher wine. It includes instructions on the
kashering of utensils used by idolaters.
Tosefta
An edition of the
Tosefta
The Tosefta ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תוספתא "supplement, addition") is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the late 2nd century, the period of the Mishnah.
Overview
In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah ( ...
of Avodah Zarah was published in 1970 edited by M. S. Zuckermandel, M. S. It relied on the Erfurt and Vienna Codices.
Jerusalem Talmud
An edition of the
Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
on Avodah Zarah was published in 1969 based on the first edition of the work published in
Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 bridges. The isla ...
in 1523. Another edition of the Jerusalem Talmud was edited by Schäfer, Peter, and Hans-Jürgen Becker in 1995. This was followed by an edition by Sussman in 2001.
Talmud Bavli
This
Gemara on Avodah Zarah was a frequent target of controversy and criticism. Of all the texts in Rabbinic Judaism, this is probably the one in which it is most difficult to obtain an "authentic" version, as almost all the pages have had censorship imposed. In the standard Vilna edition of the Talmud, the tractate has 76 folios. In terms of the actual length of the Gemara, Avodah Zarah is fairly close to the middle, being an "average" length tractate.
A brief list of major topics in each chapter follows. Since the chief aim in the
Gemara is to explain and comment on the
Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
, this is implied, and the topics mentioned will be ones that aren't directly about the Mishna (as a commentary is extremely difficult to summarize in a few lines). Folio references in parentheses are approximate and without a side (i.e. ''a'' or ''b'').
Chapter One (folios 2-22)
The tractate jumps almost straight into a long series of
aggadah
Aggadah ( he, ''ʾAggāḏā'' or ''Haggāḏā''; Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: אַגָּדְתָא ''ʾAggāḏəṯāʾ''; "tales, fairytale, lore") is the non-legalistic exegesis which appears in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism ...
, and abounds in aggadic material such as the plight of the nations in the
World to Come
The world to come, age to come, heaven on Earth, and the Kingdom of God are eschatological phrases reflecting the belief that the current world or current age is flawed or cursed and will be replaced in the future by a better world, age, or ...
(2), the
Noahide Covenant and God's laughter (3),
God's anger and punishment methodologies for both the Jews and Gentiles (4), the
sin of the Golden Calf
According to the Bible, the golden calf (עֵגֶל הַזָּהָב '' ‘ēgel hazzāhāv'') was an idol (a cult image) made by the Israelites when Moses went up to Mount Sinai. In Hebrew, the incident is known as ''ḥēṭə’ hā‘ēgel ...
and its relation to immortality (5), an exposition of Jewish history relative to the
destruction of the Second Temple
The siege of Jerusalem of 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), in which the Roman army led by future emperor Titus besieged Jerusalem, the center of Jewish rebel resistance in the Roman province of Ju ...
(8-9), the nature of heresy and the stories of the martyrdom of some eminent Rabbis in the Roman persecution (16-18), and a detailed exposition of
Psalm 1
Psalm 1 is the first psalm of the Book of Psalms, beginning in the English King James Version: "Blessed is the man", and forming "an appropriate prologue" to the whole collection.Kirkpatrick, A. F. (1906)Cambridge Bible for Schools and Collegeson ...
(19).
Halakhic material related to the immediate subject matter of the tractate includes the laws of attending an idolater's wedding (8), performing an act that looks like idolatry (12), benefiting idolatry (13), and selling weapons to idolaters (15). Halakhic material less related to the main subject matter includes praying for oneself (7), dating documents (10), what can be burnt at a Jewish king's funeral (11), causing a blemish on an animal before and after the Temple's destruction (13), and selling materials to someone suspected of flouting the
Sabbatical Year
A sabbatical (from the Hebrew: (i.e., Sabbath); in Latin ; Greek: ) is a rest or break from work.
The concept of the sabbatical is based on the Biblical practice of ''shmita'' (sabbatical year), which is related to agriculture. According to ...
laws (15).
Chapter Two (folios 22–40)
This chapter is similar to the last in being long and containing diverse material. Halakhic material related to the tractate includes the laws of buying an animal from an idolater for a sacrifice (23-24), circumcisions performed by idolaters (27), the status of Gentile beer (31), the dung of an ox intended for idolatry (34), and the prohibition of intercourse with Gentiles (36). Halakhic material less related to the tractate includes the laws of a Jewish apostate (26-27), a unique section outlining in detail many medicinal remedies from the Talmudic era (28-29), the safety/contamination issues in leaving water/wine uncovered (30), the process of overruling a previous Rabbinic court (37), and the finer details of recognising
kosher fish (39-40). There is some aggadic material describing the return of the Ark after its capture by the
Philistines
The Philistines ( he, פְּלִשְׁתִּים, Pəlīštīm; Koine Greek (LXX): Φυλιστιείμ, romanized: ''Phulistieím'') were an ancient people who lived on the south coast of Canaan from the 12th century BC until 604 BC, whe ...
(24) and the sun standing still for
Joshua
Joshua () or Yehoshua ( ''Yəhōšuaʿ'', Tiberian: ''Yŏhōšuaʿ,'' lit. 'Yahweh is salvation') ''Yēšūaʿ''; syr, ܝܫܘܥ ܒܪ ܢܘܢ ''Yəšūʿ bar Nōn''; el, Ἰησοῦς, ar , يُوشَعُ ٱبْنُ نُونٍ '' Yūšaʿ ...
(25).
Chapter Three (folios 40–49)
This chapter mainly deals with just the Mishna and other laws relating to idolatry, including the status of an idol shattered by accident (41) and the consequences of worshipping various objects (46-47). There is a small aggadic paragraph on the crown
King David wore (44).
Chapter Four (folios 49–61)
This chapter is
halakhic, dealing mainly with the Mishna. Other laws to do with idolatry discussed include sacrificing to an idol (51), food and vessels associated with idolatry (52), the exchange for an idol (54), and the status of a Gentile child in rendering
idolatrous wine (57). Extraneous halakhic material includes the activities allowed and forbidden in the Sabbatical Year and cases of Rabbis making rulings for specific communities following their own opinion (59).
Chapter Five (folios 62–76)
This chapter is halakhic, dealing with the Mishna and a large number of related topics of Gentile wine. Some of these are small, and many of the folios are made up of a great deal of logical units that are difficult to summarize. A selection of halakhic material to do with idolatry and idolatrous wine includes the forcible opening of wine by idolaters (70) and the stream created when pouring wine (72). Other halakhic material includes the laws of a
harlot
Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in sexual activity in exchange for payment. The definition of "sexual activity" varies, and is often defined as an activity requiring physical contact (e.g., sexual intercourse, non-penet ...
's wage (62-63), the definition of a
Ger Toshav
''Ger toshav'' ( he, גר תושב, ''ger'': "foreigner" or "alien" + ''toshav'': "resident", lit. "resident alien") is a halakhic term used in Judaism to designate the legal status of a Gentile (non-Jew) living in the Land of Israel who does n ...
(64), acquisition of property by a Gentile (71-72), and settling a price in negotiations (72). There is one aggadic paragraph where a rabbi explains the merits of the World to Come to a Gentile friend.
Relationship with Christianity
According to Rabbi
Avrohom Yeshaya Karelitz
Avraham Yeshaya Karelitz (7 November 1878 – 24 October 1953), also known as the Chazon Ish () after his magnum opus, was a Belarusian-born Orthodox rabbi who later became one of the leaders of Haredi Judaism in Israel, where he spent his ...
, the tractate does include Christianity as a form of idolatry:
Even medieval Jews understood very well that Christianity is ''avodah zarah'' of a special type. The tosafists assert that although a Christian pronouncing the name of Jesus in an oath would be taking the name of "another god," it is nonetheless the case that when Christians say the word "God," they have in mind the Creator of heaven and earth. Some later authorities took the continuation of that ''Tosafot'' to mean that this special type of avodah zarah is forbidden to Jews but permissible to gentiles, so that a non-Jew who engages in Christian worship commits no sin."Dabru Emet - Some Reservations"
by David Berger (2002).
An Aggadic legend from tractate Avodah Zarah 8a contains contemporary observations regarding the Roman mid-winter holidays
Saturnalia and
Calenda and, a
talmudic hypothesis about the pre-historic origin of the
winter solstice
The winter solstice, also called the hibernal solstice, occurs when either of Earth's poles reaches its maximum tilt away from the Sun. This happens twice yearly, once in each hemisphere (Northern and Southern). For that hemisphere, the winter ...
festival, that would later become the day of
Sol Invictus
Sol Invictus (, "Unconquered Sun"), sometimes simply known as Helios, was long considered to be the official sun god of the later Roman Empire. In recent years, however, the scholarly community has become divided on Sol between traditionalists ...
and
Christmas
Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to the Christian liturgical year ...
.
In the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
, the entire tractate was expunged from many European editions by Christian censors, and it was considerably difficult to obtain a copy.
See also
*
Drink offering
The drink offering (Hebrew ְנֶסֶך, ''nesekh'') was a form of libation forming one of the sacrifices and offerings of the Law of Moses.
Etymology
The Hebrew noun ''nesekh'' is formed from the Qal form of the verb ''nasakh'', "to pour," hen ...
*
Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image
"Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image" ( he, לֹא-תַעֲשֶׂה לְךָ פֶסֶל, וְכָל-תְּמוּנָה, Lōʾ-t̲aʿăśeh lək̲ā p̲esel, wək̲ol-təmûnāh) is an abbreviated form of one of the Ten Commandments whi ...
References
External links
Avodah Zarah(Sefaria)
Avodah Zarah(Jewish Encyclopedia)
{{mishnah
Mishnah
Talmud
Oral Torah