Augury is the practice from
ancient Roman religion
Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule.
The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, ...
of interpreting
omens from the observed behavior of
birds
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweigh ...
. When the individual, known as the
augur, interpreted these signs, it is referred to as "taking the auspices". "Auspices" (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
''auspicium'') literally means "looking at birds", and Latin ''auspex'', another word for "augur", literally means "one who looks at birds". Depending upon the birds, the auspices from the gods could be favorable or unfavorable (''
auspicious'' or ''inauspicious''). Sometimes politically motivated augurs would fabricate unfavorable auspices in order to delay certain state functions, such as elections.
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic '' ...
attributes the invention of auspicy to
Tiresias
In Greek mythology, Tiresias (; grc, Τειρεσίας, Teiresías) was a blind prophet of Apollo in Thebes, famous for clairvoyance and for being transformed into a woman for seven years. He was the son of the shepherd Everes and the nym ...
the seer of
Thebes, the generic model of a seer in the Greco-Roman literary culture.
This type of omen reading was already a millennium old in the time of
Classical Greece: in the fourteenth-century BC diplomatic correspondence preserved in Egypt called the "
Amarna correspondence
The Amarna letters (; sometimes referred to as the Amarna correspondence or Amarna tablets, and cited with the abbreviation EA, for "El Amarna") are an archive, written on clay tablets, primarily consisting of diplomatic correspondence between ...
", the practice was familiar to the king of Alasia in Cyprus who needed an 'eagle diviner' to be sent from Egypt. This earlier, indigenous practice of divining by bird signs, familiar in the figure of
Calchas, the bird-diviner to
Agamemnon
In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (; grc-gre, Ἀγαμέμνων ''Agamémnōn'') was a king of Mycenae who commanded the Greeks during the Trojan War. He was the son, or grandson, of King Atreus and Queen Aerope, the brother of Menelaus, the ...
, who led the army (''
Iliad
The ''Iliad'' (; grc, Ἰλιάς, Iliás, ; "a poem about Ilium") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the '' Odys ...
'' I.69), was largely replaced by sacrifice-divination through inspection of the sacrificial victim's liver—''
haruspices
In the religion of ancient Rome, a haruspex (plural haruspices; also called aruspex) was a person trained to practise a form of divination called haruspicy (''haruspicina''), the inspection of the entrails ('' exta''—hence also extispicy ...
''—during the
Orientalizing period of archaic Greek culture.
Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
notes that
hepatoscopy held greater prestige than augury by means of birds.
One of the most famous auspices is the one which is connected with the founding of Rome. Once the founders of Rome,
Romulus
Romulus () was the legendary foundation of Rome, founder and King of Rome, first king of Ancient Rome, Rome. Various traditions attribute the establishment of many of Rome's oldest legal, political, religious, and social institutions to Romulus ...
and
Remus, arrived at the
Palatine Hill, the two argued over where the exact position of the city should be. Romulus was set on building the city upon the Palatine, but Remus wanted to build the city on the strategic and easily fortified
Aventine Hill. The two agreed to settle their argument by testing their abilities as augures and by the will of the gods. Each took a seat on the ground apart from one another, and, according to
Plutarch
Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
, Remus saw six vultures, while Romulus saw twelve.
History
According to unanimous testimony from ancient sources the use of auspices as a means to decipher the will of the gods was more ancient than Rome itself. The use of the word is usually associated with Latins as well as the earliest Roman citizens. Though some modern historians link the act of observing Auspices to the
Etruscans
The Etruscan civilization () was developed by a people of Etruria in ancient Italy with a common language and culture who formed a federation of city-states. After conquering adjacent lands, its territory covered, at its greatest extent, rou ...
,
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
accounts in his text ''
De Divinatione'' several differences between the auspicial of the Romans and the Etruscan system of interpreting the will of the gods. Cicero also mentions several other nations which, like the Romans, paid attention to the patterns of flying birds as signs of the gods' will but never once mentions this practice while discussing the Etruscans. Though auspices were prevalent before the Romans, Romans are often linked with auspices because of both their connection to Rome's foundation and because Romans were the first to take the system and lay out such fixed and fundamental rules for the reading of auspices that it remained an essential part of Roman culture. Stoics, for instance, maintained that if there are gods, they care for men, and that if they care for men they must send them signs of their will. Even the Philistines practice augury as far back as 740 BC and c. 686 BC as declared by Isaiah 2:6 in the Old Testament. Yet augury was first systematized by the Chaldeans according to the Jewish Encyclopedia.
Position of the augur
In ancient Rome, the appointment and inauguration of any magistrate, decisions made within the people's assembly and the advancement of any campaign always required a positive ''auspicium''. During Octavian's first consulship in 43 B.C.E., the positive ''auspicium'' corresponded to the spotting of twelve vultures, similar to Romulus. Unlike in Greece where oracles played the role of messenger of the gods, in Rome it was through birds that Jupiter's will was interpreted. Auspices showed Romans what they were to do, or not to do; giving no explanation for the decision made except that it was the will of the gods. It would be difficult to execute any public act without consulting the auspices.
It was believed that if an augur committed an error in the interpretation of the signs, or ''vitia'', it was considered offensive to the gods and often was said to have disastrous effects unless corrected. Elections, the passing of laws, and initiation of wars were all put on hold until the people were assured the gods agreed with their actions. The men who interpreted these signs, revealing the will of the gods were called ''augures''. Similar to records of court precedents, augures kept books containing records of past signs, the necessary rituals, prayers, and other resources to help other augures and even members of the aristocracy understand the fundamentals of augury.
The augures themselves were not the ones with the final say: Though they had the power to interpret the signs, it was ultimately the responsibility of the magistrate to execute decisions as to future actions. The magistrates were also expected to understand the basic interpretations as they were often expected to take the auspices whenever they undertook any public business.
[Potter, David. (1994). ''Prophets and Emperors'', p. 153. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University.]
Until 300 BC only
patricians
The patricians (from la, patricius, Greek: πατρίκιος) were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. The distinction was highly significant in the Roman Kingdom, and the early Republic, but its relevance waned after ...
could become augures. Plebeian assemblies were forbidden to take augury and hence had no input as to whether a certain law, war or festival should occur. Cicero, an augur himself, accounts how the monopoly of the patricians created a useful barrier to the encroachment of the ''
populares''. However, in 300 BC a new law ''Lex Ogulnia'', increased the number of augures from four to nine and required that five of the nine be plebeians, for the first time granting the ability to interpret the will of the gods to lower classes. With this new power it was not only possible for plebeians to determine the gods' will in their favor but it was also now possible for plebeians to critique unfair interpretations by patricians.
Types of auspices
There were five different types of auspices. Of these, the last three formed no part of the ancient auspices.
;ex caelō
'from the sky'' This auspice involved the observation of thunder and lightning and was often seen as the most important auspice. Whenever an augur reported that Jupiter had sent down thunder and lightning, no
comitia
The legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. According to the contemporary historian Polybius, it was the people (and thus the assemblies) who had the final say regarding the election ...
(a gathering deemed to represent the entire Roman population) could be held.
;ex avibus
'from birds'' Though auspices were typically bird signs, not all birds in the sky were seen as symbols of the will of the gods. There were two classes of birds:
Oscines
A songbird is a bird belonging to the suborder Passeri of the perching birds (Passeriformes). Another name that is sometimes seen as the scientific or vernacular name is Oscines, from Latin ''oscen'', "songbird". The Passeriformes contains 500 ...
, who gave auspices via their singing; and
Alites, who gave auspices via how they flew. The Oscines included ravens, crows, owls and hens, each offering either a favorable omen (''auspicium ratum'') or an unfavorable depending on which side of the Augur's designated area they appeared on. In fact, the ancient Romans believed the hoot of an owl meant that death was imminent. And some believed the deaths of Julius Caesar, Emperor Augustus, and Emperor Commodus Aurelius were all predicted by owls. The birds of the Alites were the eagle, the vulture, the ''avis sanqualis'', also called
ossifraga, and the
immussulus or
immusculus. Some birds like the
Picus Martius, the
Feronius, and the
Parrha could be considered among the oscines and the alites. Every movement and every sound made by these birds had a different meaning and interpretation according to the different circumstances, or times of the year when it was observed.
;ex tripudiīs
'from the "dance" (of birds feeding)'' These auspices were read by interpreting the eating patterns of chickens and were generally used on military expeditions.
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
shows that at one point, any bird could perform the ''tripudium''
acred dance but that as the practice progressed it soon began customary to use only chickens. The chickens were kept in a cage under the care of the ''pullarius'' (keeper of the auspice chickens) who, when the time came, released the chickens and threw at them some form of bread or cake. If the chickens refused to come out or eat, or uttered a cry, or beat their wings, or flew away, the signs were considered unfavourable. Conversely, if the chicken left its cage to feast so that something fell from its mouth and landed on the ground, these signs were termed ''tripudium solistimum'' (or ''tripudium quasi terripavium solistimum''
rom ''solum'', the ground according to the ancient writers), and were considered to be a favourable sign.
;ex quadrupedibus
'from quadrupeds'' Auspices could also be taken from animals who walked on four feet, though these auspices were not part of the original science of augurs, and were never used for state affairs. Often these auspices took the form of a fox, wolf, horse, or dog who crossed a person's path, or was found in an unusual location— the meaning could be interpreted, by an appointed augur, as some form of will of the gods.
;ex dīrīs
'from portents'' This category of auspices represented every other event or occurrence which could result in an auspice which does not fit into the above categories. Often actions of sneezing, stumbling, and other slightly abnormal events could be taken as a sign from the gods to be interpreted.
[cf. Serv. ad Virg. Aen. IV.453]
Offered and requested signs
There were two classifications of auspice signs,
impetrative (''impetrativa'', sought or requested) and
oblative (''oblativa'', unsought or offered). Signs that fall under the category of ''impetrativa'' were signs that resulted due to the actions performed by the augur during the reading of the auspice.
The other category of signs, ''oblativa'', were momentous events which occurred unexpectedly, while the magistrate was either taking auspices or participating in public debate.
''Ex Caelo'' ("from the sky") signs of thunder and lightning or other natural phenomena, would be considered an "offered" sign. Unless the magistrate was accompanied by an augur it was up to them to decide whether or not the “offered” sign was significant.
See also
*
Divination
References
Sources
*
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External links
*
{{Divination
Ancient Roman augury
Classical oracles
Divination