Audio system measurements are a means of quantifying system performance. These
measurement
Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to compare with other objects or events.
In other words, measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical quantity is as compared ...
s are made for several purposes. Designers take measurements so that they can specify the performance of a piece of equipment. Maintenance engineers make them to ensure equipment is still working to specification, or to ensure that the cumulative defects of an audio path are within limits considered acceptable. Audio system measurements often accommodate
psychoacoustic principles to measure the system in a way that relates to human hearing.
Subjectivity and frequency weighting
Subjectively valid methods came to prominence in consumer audio in the UK and Europe in the 1970s, when the introduction of
compact cassette
The Compact Cassette or Musicassette (MC), also commonly called the tape cassette, cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. Invented by Lou Ottens ...
tape,
dbx and
Dolby noise reduction techniques revealed the unsatisfactory nature of many basic engineering measurements. The specification of
weighted CCIR-468 quasi-peak noise, and
weighted quasi-peak wow and flutter became particularly widely used and attempts were made to find more valid methods for distortion measurement.
Measurements based on psychoacoustics, such as the measurement of
noise, often use a
weighting filter. It is well established that
human hearing is more sensitive to some frequencies than others, as demonstrated by
equal-loudness contours, but it is not well appreciated that these contours vary depending on the type of sound. The measured curves for pure tones, for instance, are different from those for random noise. The ear also responds less well to short bursts, below 100 to 200 ms, than to continuous sounds such that a
quasi-peak detector
A quasi-peak detector is a type of electronic detector or rectifier. Quasi-peak detectors for specific purposes have usually been standardized with mathematically precisely defined dynamic characteristics of attack time, integration time, and deca ...
has been found to give the most representative results when noise contains click or bursts, as is often the case for noise in digital systems. For these reasons, a set of subjectively valid measurement techniques have been devised and incorporated into BS,
IEC,
EBU
The European Broadcasting Union (EBU; french: Union européenne de radio-télévision, links=no, UER) is an alliance of public service media organisations whose countries are within the European Broadcasting Area or who are members of the Co ...
and
ITU standards. These methods of
audio quality measurement
Audio system measurements are a means of quantifying system performance. These measurements are made for several purposes. Designers take measurements so that they can specify the performance of a piece of equipment. Maintenance engineers make ...
are used by broadcast engineers throughout most of the world, as well as by some audio professionals, though the older
A-weighting
A-weighting is the most commonly used of a family of curves defined in the International standard IEC 61672:2003 and various national standards relating to the measurement of sound pressure level. A-weighting is applied to instrument-measured ...
standard for continuous tones is still commonly used by others.
No single measurement can assess audio quality. Instead, engineers use a series of measurements to analyze various types of degradation that can reduce fidelity. Thus, when testing an analogue tape machine it is necessary to
test for wow and flutter and tape speed variations over longer periods, as well as for distortion and noise. When testing a digital system, testing for speed variations is normally considered unnecessary because of the accuracy of clocks in digital circuitry, but testing for
aliasing and timing
jitter
In electronics and telecommunications, jitter is the deviation from true periodicity of a presumably periodic signal, often in relation to a reference clock signal. In clock recovery applications it is called timing jitter. Jitter is a significa ...
is often desirable, as these have caused audible degradation in many systems.
Once subjectively valid methods have been shown to correlate well with listening tests over a wide range of conditions, then such methods are generally adopted as preferred. Standard engineering methods are not always sufficient when comparing like with like. One CD player, for example, might have higher measured noise than another CD player when measured with a RMS method, or even an A-weighted RMS method, yet sound quieter and measure lower when 468-weighting is used. This could be because it has more noise at high frequencies, or even at frequencies beyond 20 kHz, both of which are less important since human ears are less sensitive to them. (See
noise shaping.) This effect is how
Dolby B works and why it was introduced. Cassette noise, which was predominately high frequency and unavoidable given the small size and speed of the recorded track could be made subjectively much less important. The noise sounded 10 dB quieter, but failed to measure much better unless 468-weighting was used rather than A-weighting.
Measurable performance
Analog electrical
;
Frequency response (FR) : This measurement tells you over what frequency range output level for an audio component will remain reasonably constant (either within a specified
decibel
The decibel (symbol: dB) is a relative unit of measurement equal to one tenth of a bel (B). It expresses the ratio of two values of a power or root-power quantity on a logarithmic scale. Two signals whose levels differ by one decibel have a po ...
range, or no more than a certain number of
dB from the amplitude at 1k
Hz). Some audio components such as tone controls are designed to adjust the loudness of signal content at particular frequencies, e.g., a
bass
Bass or Basses may refer to:
Fish
* Bass (fish), various saltwater and freshwater species
Music
* Bass (sound), describing low-frequency sound or one of several instruments in the bass range:
** Bass (instrument), including:
** Acoustic bass gui ...
control allows the attenuation or accentuation of low-frequency signal content, in which case the specification may specify the frequency response is taken with tone controls "flat" or disabled.
Preamplifiers may also contain
equalizers,
filters for example to play
LPs requiring
RIAA
The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) is a trade organization that represents the music recording industry in the United States. Its members consist of record labels and distributors that the RIAA says "create, manufacture, and/o ...
frequency response correction, in which case the specification may describe how closely the response matches the standard. By comparison,
Frequency range is a term sometimes used of
loudspeakers and other
transducers to indicate the frequencies that are usable, without normally specifying a decibel range.
Power bandwidth is also related to frequency response – indicating the range of frequencies usable at high power (since frequency response measurements are normally taken at low signal levels, where
slew rate limitations or
transformer saturation would not be a problem.
: A component having a 'flat' frequency response will not change the weighting (i.e., intensity) of signal content across the specified frequency range. The frequency range often specified for audio components is between 20
Hz to 20 kHz, which broadly reflects the human hearing range (the highest audible frequency for most people is less than 20 kHz, with 16 kHz being more typical). Components with 'flat' frequency responses are often described as being linear. Most audio components are designed to be linear across their entire operating range. Well-designed solid-state amplifiers and CD players may have a frequency response that varies by only 0.2 dB between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Loudspeakers tend to have considerably less flat frequency responses than this.
;
Total harmonic distortion (THD) : Music material contains distinct tones, and some kinds of distortion involve spurious tones at double or triple the frequencies of those tones. Such harmonically related distortion is called harmonic distortion. For
high fidelity, this is usually expected to be < 1% for electronic devices; mechanical elements such as loudspeakers usually have inescapable higher levels. Low distortion is relatively easy to achieve in electronics with use of
negative feedback
Negative feedback (or balancing feedback) occurs when some function (Mathematics), function of the output of a system, process, or mechanism is feedback, fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output, whether caused by ...
, but the use of high levels of feedback in this manner has been the topic of much controversy among
audiophiles. Essentially all loudspeakers produce more distortion than electronics, and 1–5% distortion is not unheard of at moderately loud listening levels. Human ears are less sensitive to distortion in the low frequencies, and levels are usually expected to be under 10% at loud playback. Distortion that creates only even-order harmonics for a sine wave input is sometimes considered less bothersome than odd-order distortion.
;
Output power
Output may refer to:
* The information produced by a computer, see Input/output
* An output state of a system, see state (computer science)
* Output (economics), the amount of goods and services produced
** Gross output in economics, the value o ...
: Output power for amplifiers is ideally measured and quoted as maximum Root Mean Square (
RMS)
power output per channel, at a specified distortion level at a particular load, which, by convention and government regulation, is considered the most meaningful measure of power available on music signals, though real, non-
clipping music has a high
peak-to-average ratio, and usually averages well below the maximum possible. The commonly given measurement of PMPO (peak music power out) is largely meaningless and often used in marketing literature; in the late 1960s there was much controversy over this point and the US Government (FTA) required that RMS figures be quoted for all high fidelity equipment. Music power has been making a comeback in recent years. ''See also
Audio power.''
: Power specifications require the
load impedance to be specified, and in some cases two figures will be given (for instance, the output power of a power amplifier for loudspeakers will be typically measured at 4 and 8
ohms). To deliver maximum power to the load, the impedance of the driver should be the complex conjugate of the impedance of the load. In the case of a purely resistive load, the resistance of the driver should be equal to the resistance of the load to achieve maximum output power. This is referred to as
impedance matching.
;
Intermodulation distortion (IMD) : Distortion that is not harmonically related to the signal being amplified is intermodulation distortion. It is a measure of the level of spurious signals resulting from unwanted combination of different frequency input signals. This effect results from non-linearities in the system. Sufficiently high levels of negative feedback can reduce this effect in an amplifier. Many believe it is better to design electronics in a way to minimize feedback levels, though this is difficult to achieve while meeting other high accuracy requirements. Intermodulation in loudspeaker drivers is, as with harmonic distortion, almost always larger than in most electronics. IMD increases with cone excursion. Reducing a driver's bandwidth directly reduces IMD. This is achieved by splitting the desired frequency range into separate bands and employing separate drivers for each band of frequencies, and feeding them through a
crossover filter network. Steep slope crossover filters are most effective at IMD reduction, but may be too expensive to implement using high-current components and may introduce ringing distortion. Intermodulation distortion in multi-driver loudspeakers can be greatly reduced with the use of
active crossover, though it significantly increases system cost and complexity.
;
Noise : The level of unwanted noise generated by the system itself, or by interference from external sources added to the signal.
Hum usually refers to noise only at power line frequencies (as opposed to broadband
white noise), which is introduced through induction of power line signals into the inputs of gain stages, from inadequately regulated power supplies, or poor grounding of components.
;
Crosstalk
In electronics, crosstalk is any phenomenon by which a signal transmitted on one circuit or channel of a transmission system creates an undesired effect in another circuit or channel. Crosstalk is usually caused by undesired capacitive, induc ...
: The introduction of noise (from another signal channel) caused by ground currents, stray inductance or capacitance between components or lines. Crosstalk reduces, sometimes noticeably, separation between channels (e.g., in a stereo system). A
crosstalk measurement yields a figure in dB relative to a nominal level of signal in the path receiving interference. Crosstalk is normally only a problem in equipment that processes multiple audio channels in the same chassis.
;
Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) : In
balanced audio systems, there are equal and opposite signals (difference-mode) in inputs, and any interference imposed on both leads will be subtracted, canceling out that interference (i.e., the common-mode). CMRR is a measure of a system's ability to ignore such interference and especially hum at its input. It is generally only significant with long lines on an input, or when some kinds of
ground loop problems exist. Unbalanced inputs do not have common mode resistance; induced noise on their inputs appears directly as noise or hum.
;
Dynamic range ''and''
Signal-to-noise ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N) is a measure used in science and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in deci ...
(SNR) : The difference between the maximum level a component can accommodate and the noise level it produces. Input noise is not counted in this measurement. It is measured in dB.
: ''Dynamic range'' refers to the ratio of maximum to minimum loudness in a given signal source (e.g., music or programme material), and this measurement also quantifies the maximum dynamic range an audio system can carry. This is the ratio (usually expressed in
dB) between the noise floor of the device with no signal and the maximum signal (usually a
sine wave
A sine wave, sinusoidal wave, or just sinusoid is a curve, mathematical curve defined in terms of the ''sine'' trigonometric function, of which it is the graph of a function, graph. It is a type of continuous wave and also a Smoothness, smooth p ...
) that can be output at a specified (low) distortion level.
:Since the early 1990s it has been recommended by several authorities including the
Audio Engineering Society
The Audio Engineering Society (AES) is a professional body for engineers, scientists, other individuals with an interest or involvement in the professional audio industry. The membership largely comprises engineers developing devices or products ...
that measurements of dynamic range be made with an audio signal present. This avoids questionable measurements based on the use of blank media or muting circuits.
: ''Signal-to-noise ratio'' (SNR), however, is the ratio between the noise floor and an arbitrary reference level or
alignment level. In "professional" recording equipment, this reference level is usually +4 dBu (IEC 60268-17), though sometimes 0 dBu (UK and Europe – EBU standard Alignment level). 'Test level', 'measurement level' and 'line-up level' mean different things, often leading to confusion. In "consumer" equipment, no standard exists, though −10 dBV and −6 dBu are common.
: Different media characteristically exhibit different amounts of
noise and
headroom. Though the values vary widely between units, a typical analogue
cassette might give 60
dB, a
CD almost 100 dB. Most modern quality amplifiers have >110 dB dynamic range, which approaches that of the human
ear, usually taken as around 130 dB. See
Programme levels
{{Unreferenced, date=November 2009
Programme level refers to the signal level that an audio source is transmitted or recorded at, and is important in audio if listeners of Compact Discs (CDs), radio and television are to get the best experience, w ...
.
;
Phase distortion'', ''
Group delay'', and ''
Phase delay : A perfect audio component will maintain the
phase coherency of a signal over the full range of frequencies. Phase distortion can be extremely difficult to reduce or eliminate. The human ear is largely insensitive to phase distortion, though it is exquisitely sensitive to relative phase relationships within heard sounds. The complex nature of our sensitivity to phase errors, coupled with the lack of a convenient test that delivers an easily understood quality rating, is the reason that it is not a part of conventional audio specifications. Multi-driver loudspeaker systems may have complex phase distortions, caused or corrected by crossovers, driver placement, and the phase behaviour of the specific driver.
;
Transient response : A system may have low distortion for a steady-state signal, but not on sudden transients. In amplifiers, this problem can be traced to power supplies in some instances, to insufficient high-frequency performance or to excessive negative feedback. Related measurements are
slew rate and
rise time. Distortion in transient response can be hard to measure. Many otherwise good power amplifier designs have been found to have inadequate slew rates, by modern standards. In loudspeakers, transient response performance is affected by the mass and resonances of drivers and enclosures and by
group delay and phase delay introduced by crossover filtering or inadequate time alignment of the loudspeaker's drivers. Most
loudspeakers generate significant amounts of transient distortion, though some designs are less prone to this (e.g.
electrostatic loudspeakers,
plasma arc tweeters,
ribbon tweeters and
horn enclosures with multiple entry points).
;
Damping factor
Damping is an influence within or upon an oscillatory system that has the effect of reducing or preventing its oscillation. In physical systems, damping is produced by processes that dissipate the energy stored in the oscillation. Examples i ...
: A higher number is generally believed to be better. This is a measure of how well a power
amplifier controls the undesired motion of a
loudspeaker driver. An amplifier must be able to suppress
resonances caused by mechanical motion (e.g.,
inertia) of a speaker cone, especially a low-frequency driver with greater mass. For conventional loudspeaker drivers, this essentially involves ensuring that the
output impedance of the amplifier is close to zero and that the speaker wires are sufficiently short and have sufficiently large diameter. Damping factor is the ratio of the output impedance of an amplifier and connecting cables to the DC resistance of a
voice coil, which means that long, high resistance speaker wires will reduce the damping factor. A damping factor of 20 or greater is considered adequate for live
sound reinforcement system
A sound reinforcement system is the combination of microphones, signal processors, amplifiers, and loudspeakers in enclosures all controlled by a mixing console that makes live or pre-recorded sounds louder and may also distribute those sounds ...
s, as the SPL of inertia-related driver movement is 26 dB less than signal level and won't be heard. Negative feedback in an amplifier lowers its effective output impedance and thus increases its damping factor.
Mechanical
;
Wow
Wow or WoW may refer to:
Games and toys
*''World of Warcraft'', a massively multiplayer online role-playing game
*''World of Warplanes'', an online flight simulator
*''World of Warships'', an online naval simulator
*''Wizard of Wor'', a 1981 a ...
and
flutter
Flutter may refer to:
Technology
* Aeroelastic flutter, a rapid self-feeding motion, potentially destructive, that is excited by aerodynamic forces in aircraft and bridges
* Flutter (American company), a gesture recognition technology company acqu ...
: These measurements are related to physical motion in a component, largely the drive mechanism of
analogue media, such as
vinyl records and
magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic storage made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany in 1928, based on the earlier magnetic wire recording from Denmark. Devices that use magne ...
. "Wow" is slow speed (a few Hz) variation, caused by longer-term drift of the drive motor speed, whereas "flutter" is faster speed (a few tens of Hz) variations, usually caused by mechanical defects such as out-of-roundness of the
capstan of a tape transport mechanism. The measurement is given in % and a lower number is better.
; Rumble : The measure of the low frequency (many tens of Hz) noise contributed by the
turntable of an analogue playback system. It is caused by imperfect bearings, uneven motor windings, vibrations in driving bands in some turntables, room vibrations (e.g., from traffic) that is transmitted by the turntable mounting and so to the phono cartridge. A lower number is better.
Digital
Note that digital systems do not suffer from many of these effects at a signal level, though the same processes occur in the circuitry since the data being handled is ''symbolic''. As long as the symbol survives the transfer between components, and can be perfectly regenerated (e.g., by
pulse shaping techniques) the data itself is perfectly maintained. The data is typically buffered in a memory, and is
clocked out by a very precise
crystal oscillator. The data usually does not degenerate as it passes through many stages, because each stage regenerates new symbols for transmission.
Digital systems have their own problems. Digitizing adds
noise, which is measurable and depends on the
audio bit depth
In digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample. Examples of bit depth include Compact Disc Digital Audio, which ...
of the system, regardless of other quality issues. Timing errors in sampling clocks (
jitter
In electronics and telecommunications, jitter is the deviation from true periodicity of a presumably periodic signal, often in relation to a reference clock signal. In clock recovery applications it is called timing jitter. Jitter is a significa ...
) result in non-linear distortion (FM modulation) of the signal. One quality measurement for a digital system (Bit Error Rate) relates to the probability of an error in transmission or reception. Other metrics on the quality of the system are defined by the
sample rate and
bit depth. In general, digital systems are much less prone to error than analogue systems; However, nearly all digital systems have analogue inputs and/or outputs, and certainly all of those that interact with the analogue world do so. These analogue components of the digital system can suffer analogue effects and potentially compromise the integrity of a well designed digital system.
;
Jitter
In electronics and telecommunications, jitter is the deviation from true periodicity of a presumably periodic signal, often in relation to a reference clock signal. In clock recovery applications it is called timing jitter. Jitter is a significa ...
: A measurement of the variation in period (periodic jitter) and absolute timing (random jitter) between measured clock timing versus an ideal clock. Less jitter is generally better for sampling systems.
;
Sample rate : A specification of the rate at which measurements are taken of the analogue signal. This is measured in samples per second, or
hertz. A higher sampling rate allows a greater total bandwidth or pass-band frequency response and allows less-steep anti-aliasing/anti-imaging filters to be used in the stop-band, which can in turn improve overall phase linearity in the pass-band.
;
Bit depth : In
Pulse-code modulation audio, the bit depth is the number of
bits of information in each
sample.
Quantization, a process used in digital audio sampling, creates an error in the
reconstructed signal. The
Signal-to-quantization-noise ratio is a multiple of the bit depth.
:
Audio CDs
The compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony to store and play digital audio recordings. In August 1982, the first compact disc was manufactured. It was then released in October ...
use a bit depth of 16-bits, while
DVD-Video
DVD-Video is a consumer video format used to store digital video on DVD discs. DVD-Video was the dominant consumer home video format in Asia, North America, Europe, and Australia in the 2000s until it was supplanted by the high-definition Blu-r ...
and
Blu-ray discs can use 24-bit audio. The maximum
dynamic range of a 16-bit system is about 96dB,
while for 24 bit it is about 144 dB.
:
Dither can be used in
audio mastering to randomize the
quantization error
Quantization, in mathematics and digital signal processing, is the process of mapping input values from a large set (often a continuous set) to output values in a (countable) smaller set, often with a finite number of elements. Rounding and ...
, and some dither systems use
Noise shaping to spectral shape of the quantization noise floor. The use of shaped dither can increase the effective dynamic range of 16-bit audio to around 120 dB.
:To calculate the maximum theoretical dynamic range of a digital system (
Signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR)) use the following algorithm for bit depth Q:
:
:Example: A
16-bit
16-bit microcomputers are microcomputers that use 16-bit microprocessors.
A 16-bit register can store 216 different values. The range of integer values that can be stored in 16 bits depends on the integer representation used. With the two mos ...
system has 2
16 different possibilities, from 0 – 65,535. The smallest signal without dithering is 1, so the number of different levels is one less, 2
16 − 1.
:So for a 16-bit digital system, the Dynamic Range is 20·log(2
16 − 1) ≈ 96 dB.
; Sample accuracy/synchronisation : Not as much a specification as an ability. Since independent digital audio devices are each run by their own
crystal oscillator, and no two crystals are exactly the same, the sample rate will be slightly different. This will cause the devices to drift apart over time. The effects of this can vary. If one digital device is used to monitor another digital device, this will cause dropouts or distortion in the audio, as one device will be producing more or less data than the other per unit time. If two independent devices record at the same time, one will lag the other more and more over time. This effect can be circumvented with a
word clock synchronization. It can also be corrected in the digital domain using a drift correction algorithm. Such an algorithm compares the relative rates of two or more devices and drops or adds samples from the streams of any devices that drift too far from the master device. Sample rate will also vary slightly over time, as crystals change in temperature, etc. See also
clock recovery
; Linearity : ''Differential non-linearity'' and ''integral non-linearity'' are two measurements of the accuracy of an
analog-to-digital converter. Basically, they measure how close the threshold levels for each bit are to the theoretical equally-spaced levels.
Automated sequence testing
Sequence testing uses a specific sequence of test signals, for frequency response, noise, distortion etc., generated and measured automatically to carry out a complete quality check on a piece of equipment or signal path. A single 32-second sequence was standardized by the
EBU
The European Broadcasting Union (EBU; french: Union européenne de radio-télévision, links=no, UER) is an alliance of public service media organisations whose countries are within the European Broadcasting Area or who are members of the Co ...
in 1985, incorporating 13 tones (40 Hz–15 kHz at −12 dB) for frequency response measurement, two tones for distortion (1024 Hz/60 Hz at +9 dB) plus crosstalk and compander tests. This sequence, which began with a 110-
baud
In telecommunication and electronics, baud (; symbol: Bd) is a common unit of measurement of symbol rate, which is one of the components that determine the speed of communication over a data channel.
It is the unit for symbol rate or modulatio ...
FSK signal for synchronizing purposes, also became
CCITT
The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is one of the three sectors (divisions or units) of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). It is responsible for coordinating standards for telecommunications and Information Commu ...
standard O.33 in 1985.
Lindos Electronics
Lindos Electronics is a British manufacturer of test equipment for audio quality measurement.
History
Founded in 1979, by Peter J Skirrow, the business was named after the home where development and manufacture began, as is so often the case, i ...
expanded the concept, retaining the FSK concept, and inventing segmented sequence testing, which separated each test into a 'segment' starting with an identifying character transmitted as 110-baud FSK so that these could be regarded as 'building blocks' for a complete test suited to a particular situation. Regardless of the mix chosen, the FSK provides both identification and synchronization for each segment, so that sequence tests sent over networks and even satellite links are automatically responded to by measuring equipment. Thus TUND represents a sequence made up of four segments which test the
alignment level,
frequency response,
noise and
distortion in less than a minute, with many other tests, such as
Wow and flutter
''Wow and Flutter'' is an EP by the post-rock band Stereolab, which served as the second single from their 1994 album ''Mars Audiac Quintet''. A limited edition of 3,000 7" copies was released with hand-painted covers. The EP was also release ...
,
Headroom, and
Crosstalk
In electronics, crosstalk is any phenomenon by which a signal transmitted on one circuit or channel of a transmission system creates an undesired effect in another circuit or channel. Crosstalk is usually caused by undesired capacitive, induc ...
also available in segments as well as a whole.
The Lindos sequence test system is now a 'de facto' standard in broadcasting and many other areas of audio testing, with over 25 different segments recognized by Lindos test sets, and the EBU standard is no longer used.
Unquantifiable?
Many audio components are tested for performance using objective and quantifiable measurements, e.g., THD, dynamic range and frequency response. Some take the view that objective measurements are useful and often relate well to subjective performance, i.e., the sound quality as experienced by the listener. Floyd Toole has extensively
evaluated loudspeakers in
acoustical engineering research. In a
peer reviewed scientific journal
In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research.
Content
Articles in scientific journals are mostly written by active scientists such as s ...
, Toole has presented findings that subjects have a range of abilities to distinguish good loudspeakers from bad, and that
blind
Blind may refer to:
* The state of blindness, being unable to see
* A window blind, a covering for a window
Blind may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Films
* ''Blind'' (2007 film), a Dutch drama by Tamar van den Dop
* ''Blind' ...
listening tests are more reliable than sighted tests. He found that subjects can more accurately perceive differences in speaker quality during
monaural playback though a single loudspeaker, whereas subjective perception of
stereophonic sound
Stereophonic sound, or more commonly stereo, is a method of sound reproduction that recreates a multi-directional, 3-dimensional audible perspective. This is usually achieved by using two independent audio channels through a configuration ...
is more influenced by room effects. One of Toole's papers showed that objective measurements of loudspeaker performance match subjective evaluations in listening tests.
Some argue that because human hearing and perception are not fully understood, listener experience should be valued above everything else. This tactic is often encountered in the
high-end home audio world, where it is used to sell amplifiers with poor specifications. The usefulness of blind listening tests and common objective performance measurements, e.g., THD, are questioned. For instance, crossover distortion at a given THD is much more audible than clipping distortion at the same THD, since the harmonics produced are at higher frequencies. This does not imply that the defect is somehow unquantifiable or unmeasurable; just that a single THD number is inadequate to specify it and must be interpreted with care. Taking THD measurements at different output levels would expose whether the distortion is clipping (which increases with level) or crossover (which decreases with level).
Whichever the view, some measurements have been traditionally used, despite having no objective value. For example, THD is an average of a number of harmonics equally weighted, even though research performed decades ago identifies that lower order harmonics are harder to hear at the same level, compared with higher-order ones. In addition, even-order harmonics are said to be generally harder to hear than odd order. A number of formulas that attempt to correlate THD with actual audibility have been published, however, none have gained mainstream use.
The mass market consumer magazine ''
Stereophile'' promotes the claim that home audio enthusiasts prefer sighted tests than blind tests.
[Atkinson, John]
"Blind Tests & Bus Stops"
''Stereophile'', ''As We See It'', July 2005.
See also
*
ABX test
*
Alignment level
*
Amplitude distortion
*
Audio noise measurement
*
Audiophile
*
Clipping (signal processing)
*
Equal-loudness contour
An equal-loudness contour is a measure of sound pressure level, over the frequency spectrum, for which a listener perceives a constant loudness when presented with pure steady tones. The unit of measurement for loudness levels is the phon and ...
*
Flutter measurement
*
Frequency response
*
Headroom
*
High fidelity
*
Intermodulation distortion
*
ITU-R 468 noise weighting
ITU-R 468 (originally defined in CCIR recommendation 468-4, therefore formerly also known as CCIR weighting; sometimes referred to as CCIR-1k) is a standard relating to noise measurement, widely used when measuring noise in audio systems. The ...
*
Lindos Electronics
Lindos Electronics is a British manufacturer of test equipment for audio quality measurement.
History
Founded in 1979, by Peter J Skirrow, the business was named after the home where development and manufacture began, as is so often the case, i ...
*
Loudspeaker measurement
*
Noise
*
Perceptual Evaluation of Audio Quality (PEAQ)
*
Phase distortion
*
Physics of music Musical acoustics or music acoustics is a multidisciplinary field that combines knowledge from physics, psychophysics, organology (classification of the instruments), physiology, music theory, ethnomusicology, signal processing and instrument buildi ...
*
Programme levels
{{Unreferenced, date=November 2009
Programme level refers to the signal level that an audio source is transmitted or recorded at, and is important in audio if listeners of Compact Discs (CDs), radio and television are to get the best experience, w ...
*
Rumble measurement
A rumble is a continuous deep, resonant sound, such as the sound made by heavy vehicles or thunder. In the context of audio reproduction rumble refers to a low frequency sound from the bearings inside a turntable. This is most noticeable in lo ...
*
Signal-to-noise-and-distortion
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Sound level meter
A sound level meter (also called sound pressure level meter (SPL)) is used for acoustic measurements. It is commonly a hand-held instrument with a microphone. The best type of microphone for sound level meters is the condenser microphone, whic ...
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Sound quality
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Total harmonic distortion (THD)
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Total harmonic distortion analyzer
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Weighting filter
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Wow and flutter measurement
References
* ''Audio Engineer's Reference Book'', 2nd Ed 1999, edited Michael Talbot Smith, Focal Press
External links
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Cepstral Loudness Enhanced Algorithm for Rub & Buzz
{{DEFAULTSORT:Audio System Measurements
Audio engineering
Audio amplifier specifications