Many factions opposed to
Siad Barre
Mohamed Siad Barre ( so, Maxamed Siyaad Barre, Osmanya script: ; ar, محمد سياد بري; c. 1910 – 2 January 1995) was a Somali head of state and general who served as the 3rd president of the Somali Democratic Republic from 1969 to 199 ...
set aside tribal and political differences to unite in purpose to overthrow his regime. After the collapse of Siad Barre's government in 1991 the nation fell into a long period of increasingly chaotic conflict between forces of clans, militias, warlords, separatist, religious functions and rebellion movements, other nations, and even the
United Nations peacekeepers
Peacekeeping by the United Nations is a role held by the Department of Peace Operations as an "instrument developed by the organization as a way to help countries torn by conflict to create the conditions for lasting peace". It is distinguished ...
.
The powers that overthrew Siad Barre were composed of various clan-predominated factions, from the Hawiye-based
United Somali Congress
The United Somali Congress (USC) was one of the major rebel organizations in Somalia. Formed in 1987, it played a leading role in the ouster of the government of Siad Barre in 1991, and became a target of the Unified Task Force campaign in 19 ...
(USC) to the Ogadeni and Harti
Somali Patriotic Movement
The Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM, so, Dhaqdhaqaaqa Wadaniga Soomaaliyeed, ar, الحركة الوطنية الصومالية) is a political party and paramilitary organization in Somalia, and a key faction in the Somali Civil War. (SPM), the Gadabursi-based
Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA), Majerteen-based
Somali Salvation Democratic Front
Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) ( so, Jabhadda Diimuqraadiga Badbaadinta Soomaaliyeed), initially known as the Democratic Front for Salvation of Somalia, was a political and paramilitary umbrella organization in Somalia. Founded in 1978 ...
(SSDF).
Reconciliation and disarmament efforts
Various peacemaking and peacekeeping efforts were attempted, but all were destined for failure until most all parties had agreed to the formation of a new international community-backed
Transitional Federal Government
The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) ( so, Dowladda Federaalka Kumeelgaarka, ar, الحكومة الاتحادية الانتقالية) was internationally recognized as a provisional government of the Republic of Somalia from 14 October ...
, which finally occurred 2004 in Djibouti.
1991: First attempts at reconciliation
During the Somali civil war, a "Manifesto" was produced and supported by many of the rebel leaders. From this "Manifesto", a rebel government was formed in January 1991. Because the "Manifesto" was mostly supported by the United Somali Congress, this governmental movement became known as "USC 91". However, since not all rebel leaders were signatories, and because many other factions did not wish to submit to the USC's leadership, the "Manifesto" or "USC 91" government failed to be recognized as legitimate by all parties and was not recognized by the international community.
The first attempt at Somali national reconciliation was conference was held in
Djibouti
Djibouti, ar, جيبوتي ', french: link=no, Djibouti, so, Jabuuti officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Somalia to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red ...
, between 5 and 11 June 1991 (Djibouti I). Four factions participated. A second conference (Djibouti II) was held in Djibouti in July 1991, but neither produced significant results.
1992–1995 UN missions to Somalia
In late 1992, UN Secretary General
Boutros Boutros-Ghali
Boutros Boutros-Ghali (; , ar, بطرس بطرس غالي ', ; 14 November 1922 – 16 February 2016) was an Egyptian politician and diplomat who served as the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN) from 1992 to 1996. An academic ...
proposed an expansion of the UN humanitarian mission to Somalia to include
nation building
Nation-building is constructing or structuring a national identity using the power of the State (polity), state. Nation-building aims at the unification of the people within the state so that it remains politically stable and viable in the long r ...
activities, including the disarming of the warring
militia
A militia () is generally an army or some other fighting organization of non-professional soldiers, citizens of a country, or subjects of a state, who may perform military service during a time of need, as opposed to a professional force of r ...
s of the country. However, in a
''Time'' magazine article from December 28, 2002, US Special Envoy
Robert B. Oakley
Robert Bigger Oakley (March 12, 1931 – December 10, 2014) was an American diplomat whose 34-year career (1957–1991) as a Foreign Service Officer included appointments as United States Ambassador to Zaire, Somalia, and Pakistan and, in the earl ...
, said three things were important to a Somali man: "his camel, his wife and his weapon. The
right to bear arms
The right to keep and bear arms (often referred to as the right to bear arms) is a right for people to possess weapons (arms) for the preservation of life, liberty, and property. The purpose of gun rights is for self-defense, including securi ...
is in their soul."
["The Dilemma of Disarmament"]
''Time''.
As Oakley astutely observed, the UN missions to Somalia would not result in the disarmament of the many factions of the Somali Civil War. Too many warlords, as well as too many common Somalis, wished to keep their weapons, and to keep their feuds alive. In 1995, the last of the UN peacekeepers were pulled out of Somalia.
UN Security Council intervention in Somalia's Civil War went back to
Resolution 733, an
arms control
Arms control is a term for international restrictions upon the development, production, stockpiling, proliferation and usage of small arms, conventional weapons, and weapons of mass destruction. Arms control is typically exercised through the u ...
provision which established a weapons embargo on the country.
The list of UN missions to Somalia, and their US operations names, are as follows:
1993 Conference on National Reconciliation
In early 1993, concurrent with the UNOSOM I humanitarian mission, fifteen of the warring parties of the
Somali Civil War
The Somali Civil War ( so, Dagaalkii Sokeeye ee Soomaaliya; ar, الحرب الأهلية الصومالية ) is an ongoing civil war that is taking place in Somalia. It grew out of resistance to the Military dictatorship, military junta wh ...
signed two agreements for national reconciliation and disarmament: an agreement to hold an
Informal Preparatory Meeting on National Reconciliation
A United Nations Economic Commission for Africa-sponsored meeting held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, January 4–8, 1993. Its purpose was to attempt to settle differences between the warring factions of the Somali Civil War. It led to a formal agreeme ...
, followed by the
1993 Addis Ababa Agreement made at the
Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia
The Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia was an attempt to end the Somali Civil War. It led to the signing of the Addis Ababa Agreement (1993), on March 27, 1993. Fifteen different warring factions agreed to the principles of Disarmame ...
. Fighting continued, and the agreement later fell apart.
1997 National Salvation Council
Organized by
IGAD
The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is an eight-country trade bloc in Africa. It includes governments from the Horn of Africa, Nile Valley and the African Great Lakes. It is headquartered in Djibouti (city), Djibouti.
Member s ...
, and held in
Sodere
__NOTOC__
Sodere ( om, Sodaree) a spa town in central Ethiopia. Located approximately 25 kilometres south of Adama and 120 kilometres southeast of Addis Ababa in the East Shewa Zone of the Oromia Region, this town has a latitude and longitude of ...
,
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
, but boycotted by
Hussein Aidid
Hussein Mohamed Farrah Aidid ( so, Xuseen Maxamed Faarax Caydiid, ar, حسين محمد فارح عيديد) (born August 16, 1962) is the son of General Mohamed Farrah Aidid. His father was leader of the Somali National Alliance (SNA), the o ...
's faction as well as the newly-declared government of
Somaliland
Somaliland,; ar, صوماليلاند ', ' officially the Republic of Somaliland,, ar, جمهورية صوماليلاند, link=no ''Jumhūrīyat Ṣūmālīlānd'' is a ''de facto'' sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, still conside ...
. A similar conference in
Sana'a
Sanaa ( ar, صَنْعَاء, ' , Yemeni Arabic: ; Old South Arabian: 𐩮𐩬𐩲𐩥 ''Ṣnʿw''), also spelled Sana'a or Sana, is the capital and largest city in Yemen and the centre of Sanaa Governorate. The city is not part of the Governo ...
,
Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
, did not include all the parties of the conflict, and was rejected by those not attending.
[Somalia: From Permanent Conflict to More Peacefulness?]
Searching for Peace in Africa, Jos van Beurden
Amnesty International
1997 Cairo Peace Conference / Cairo Declaration
Hussein Aidid
Hussein Mohamed Farrah Aidid ( so, Xuseen Maxamed Faarax Caydiid, ar, حسين محمد فارح عيديد) (born August 16, 1962) is the son of General Mohamed Farrah Aidid. His father was leader of the Somali National Alliance (SNA), the o ...
and representatives from 25 clans attended a peace conference in Cairo, in December 1997. While the UN Security Council lauded the efforts, which included decisions to adopt "a federal system with regional autonomy and agreement to form a transitional government of national unity", it still left the country without a national leader, many of the non-attendees balking at the results, and none of the Somali factions agreeing to disarm. Hussein Aidid and
Ali Mahdi
Ali Mahdi Muhammad ( so, Cali Mahdi Maxamed, ar, علي مهدي محمد) (1 January 1939 – 10 March 2021) was a Somali entrepreneur and politician. He served as President of Somalia from 26 January 1991 to 3 January 1997. The Cairo Agreeme ...
were considered opposed to the proposed settlements.
[Security Council Welcomes Results of Somali Leaders' Meeting in Cairo]
UN Security Council[Somalia/Ethiopia]
CountryWatch
1998 Baidoa Conference
The conference was postponed indefinitely and then cancelled after continuous fighting in the city throughout the early part of the year made it impossible to ensure security. Cholera had also broken out in Baidoa around that time. By June, Osman Hassan Ali "Ato" declared the Cairo peace process "dead".
UNDP
UNDP
UNDP
UNDP
UNDP
2000 Somalia National Peace Conference
Officially dubbed the
Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC), and sometimes called the
Djibouti
Djibouti, ar, جيبوتي ', french: link=no, Djibouti, so, Jabuuti officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Somalia to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red ...
conference, this was a series of meetings held in
Arta Arta, ARTA, or Artà may refer to:
Places Djibouti
* Arta, Djibouti, a regional capital city in southeastern Djibouti
* Arta Mountains, a mountain range in Djibouti
* Arta Region, Djibouti
Greece
* Arta, Greece, a regional capital city in northwes ...
,
Djibouti
Djibouti, ar, جيبوتي ', french: link=no, Djibouti, so, Jabuuti officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Somalia to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red ...
, on April 20 - May 5, 2000. The conference was aimed at bringing together representatives of the warring factions of Somalia to end the civil war that had claimed over 300,000 lives.
[Somalia National Peace Conference]
Program, hosted at Banadir.com The name Transitional National Government (TNG) was selected for the movement at this time.
Annex II of the program for the conference dealt with cease-fire, disarmament and security. It emphasized:
The desire of the Somali people for peace and security through disarmament is unambiguous. This call is heard repeated throughout the country from all segments of the Somali society, who have consistently demand an end to violence. Unless this is realized, the entire process of reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction would be jeopardized, if not stillborn. One of the first responsibilities of Somalia's new transitional government will be to insist on an immediate and comprehensive cease-fire, together with binding, complete and simultaneous disarmament of al militias throughout the country consistent with the agreements they signed from 1991 to 1997, but never implemented.
It took another six years before the transitional government was in a position to implement such a cease-fire and disarmament.
2001 National Commission for Reconciliation and Property Settlement
On May 6, 2001, an effort to create a 25-member working body, dubbed the
National Commission for Reconciliation and Property Settlement (NCRPS), was damaged when
Abdirizak Haji Hussein
Abdirizak Haji Hussein ( so, Cabdirisaaq Xaaji Xuseen; ar, عبد الرزاق حاجي حسين; 24 December 192431 January 2014) was a Somali diplomat and politician. He was the Prime Minister of Somali Republic from 14 June 1964 to 15 Ju ...
, former prime minister, was named as its head. The
Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council
The Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council (SRRC) was a political movement and paramilitary organization based in southern Somalia. It was founded in 2001 by Hussein Mohamed Farrah Aidid, son of the late faction leader Mohamed Farrah Aidid ...
(SRRC) and
Puntland
Puntland ( so, Puntland, ar, أرض البنط, it, Terra di Punt or ''Paese di Punt''), officially the Puntland State of Somalia ( so, Dowlad Goboleedka Puntland ee Soomaaliya, ar, ولاية أرض البنط الصومالية), is a F ...
leadership objected strongly. Hussein later resigned on July 25, 2001.
2002 Somali Reconciliation Conference
The
2002 Somali Reconciliation Conference
The 2002 Somali Reconciliation Conference, sometimes called the Eldoret conference were a series of meetings held in Eldoret, Kenya during November 2002. It was attended by most supporters of the Transitional National Government (TNG) of Somalia. ...
held in Eldoret, Kenya, this conference was attended by most TFG supporters. However, at the time, the
Rahanweyn Resistance Army
The Rahaweyn Resistance Army (RRA), also known as the Reewin Resistance Army, is an autonomist militant group operating in the Southern Somalia, It was the first Reewin armed faction to emerge during the Somali civil war. The stated goal of the ...
(RRA) was still hotly contending with other factions, including warlord Adan Madobe-Habsade, who captured Baidoa. The RRA accused the
Juba Valley Alliance
The Juba Valley Alliance (JVA; Somali: ''Isbahaysiga Dooxada Jubba'') is a political faction of the Somali Civil War. It was the primary opponent of the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM) and the Somali Reconciliation and Restoration Council (SRRC) v ...
of assisting the warlord, an accusation denied by the JVA leader
Barre Adan Shire Hiiraale
Barre Adan Shire ( so, Barre Aadan Shire, ar, باري ادن شاير), also known as Barre Hiiraale, Barre "Hirale" Aden Shire, or Abdikadir Adan Shire, is a former Minister of Defense of the Somali Transitional Federal Government (TFG). He wa ...
.
[Somalia: Interview with Barre Adan Shire, chairman of the Juba Valley Alliance (JVA)]
IRIN
2004 Nairobi Conference
In January, 2004 a productive conference was held in Nairobi, Kenya, at which the
Transitional Federal Government
The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) ( so, Dowladda Federaalka Kumeelgaarka, ar, الحكومة الاتحادية الانتقالية) was internationally recognized as a provisional government of the Republic of Somalia from 14 October ...
was agreed to. A document was signed by the major factions, entitled, ''Declaration on the Harmonization of Various Issues Proposed by the Somali Delegates at the Somali Consultative Meetings from 9–29 January 2004''. From this, the Transitional Federal Institutions were agreed to, including elections. However, none of the parties yet had disarmed.
[UN in Somalia]
United Nations Political Office for Somalia (UNPOS)
2004 presidential elections
On 10 October
004 004, 0O4, O04, OO4 may refer to:
* 004, fictional British 00 Agent
* 0O4, Corning Municipal Airport (California)
* O04, the Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation
* Abdul Haq Wasiq, Guantanamo detainee 004
* Junkers Jumo 004 turbojet engine
* Lauda ...
the president of
Puntland
Puntland ( so, Puntland, ar, أرض البنط, it, Terra di Punt or ''Paese di Punt''), officially the Puntland State of Somalia ( so, Dowlad Goboleedka Puntland ee Soomaaliya, ar, ولاية أرض البنط الصومالية), is a F ...
,
Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed
Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed ( so, Cabdulaahi Yuusuf Axmed, ar, عبدالله يوسف أحمد; 15 December 1934 – 23 March 2012) was a Somali politician and former colonel in the Somali National Army. He was one of the founders of the Somali ...
, was elected president of the Somali
Transitional Federal Government
The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) ( so, Dowladda Federaalka Kumeelgaarka, ar, الحكومة الاتحادية الانتقالية) was internationally recognized as a provisional government of the Republic of Somalia from 14 October ...
(TFG) with 189 votes. The runner up, Mr.
Abdullahi Ahmed Addow received 79 votes. Before voting, the 25 presidential candidates swore on the
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...
and signed a declaration, pledging to support the elected president and demobilize their militia.
The avowed demobilizations never occurred.
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Attempts at reconciliation in Somalia (1991-2004)
Somali Civil War
Peace conferences
1990s in Somalia
2000s in Somalia