A clinical officer (CO) is a
gazetted officer who is qualified and licensed to practice
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
.
In
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
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the basic training for clinical officers starts after high school and takes four or five years ending on successful completion of a one-year
internship
An internship is a period of work experience offered by an organization for a limited period of time. Once confined to medical graduates, internship is used practice for a wide range of placements in businesses, non-profit organizations and gover ...
in a
teaching hospital
A teaching hospital is a hospital or medical centre that provides medical education and training to future and current health professionals. Teaching hospitals are almost always affiliated with one or more universities and are often co-located ...
and registration at the
Clinical Officers Council where annual practice licenses are issued. This is followed by a three-year
apprenticeship
Apprenticeship is a system for training a new generation of practitioners of a Tradesman, trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study (classroom work and reading). Apprenticeships can also enable practitioners ...
under a senior clinical officer or a senior medical officer which must be completed before issuance of a
practising certificate A practising certificate is a licence to practise a particular profession.
In the legal profession, solicitors and barristers may need a current practising certificate before they can offer their services. The authority that administers the prac ...
and a
Master Facility List number for their own private practice or before promotion from the entry level training grade for those who remain employed. A further two-year bachelor's degree level training is undertaken by those who wish to leave
general practice
General practice is the name given in various nations, such as the United Kingdom, India, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa to the services provided by general practitioners. In some nations, such as the US, similar services may be describe ...
and
specialize in one branch of medicine such as
paediatrics
Pediatrics ( also spelled ''paediatrics'' or ''pædiatrics'') is the branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. In the United Kingdom, paediatrics covers many of their youth until the ...
,
orthopaedics
Orthopedic surgery or orthopedics ( alternatively spelt orthopaedics), is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system. Orthopedic surgeons use both surgical and nonsurgical means to treat musculoskeletal ...
or
psychiatry
Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various maladaptations related to mood, behaviour, cognition, and perceptions. See glossary of psychiatry.
Initial psych ...
. Unique
Master Facility List numbers are generated from a national
WHO
Who or WHO may refer to:
* Who (pronoun), an interrogative or relative pronoun
* Who?, one of the Five Ws in journalism
* World Health Organization
Arts and entertainment Fictional characters
* Who, a creature in the Dr. Seuss book '' Horton He ...
-recommended database at the
Ministry of Health which receives and tracks health workload, performance and
disease surveillance
Disease surveillance is an epidemiological practice by which the spread of disease is monitored in order to establish patterns of progression. The main role of disease surveillance is to predict, observe, and minimize the harm caused by outbreak ...
data from all public and private health facilities in the
47 counties. Clinical officers also run private practices using a license issued to them by the
Kenya Medical Practitioners and Dentists Council. Career options for clinical officers include
general practice
General practice is the name given in various nations, such as the United Kingdom, India, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa to the services provided by general practitioners. In some nations, such as the US, similar services may be describe ...
,
specialty practice,
health administration
Health administration, healthcare administration, healthcare management or hospital management is the field relating to leadership, management, and administration of public health systems, health care systems, hospitals, and hospital networks ...
,
community health and
postgraduate training and
research
Research is "creativity, creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular att ...
in the
private sector
The private sector is the part of the economy, sometimes referred to as the citizen sector, which is owned by private groups, usually as a means of establishment for profit or non profit, rather than being owned by the government.
Employment
The ...
or
government service
A public service is any service intended to address specific needs pertaining to the aggregate members of a community. Public services are available to people within a government jurisdiction as provided directly through public sector agencies ...
. Many clinical officers are
government contractor
A government contractor is a company (privately owned, publicly traded or a state-owned enterprise)either for profit or non-profitthat produces goods or services under contract for the government. Some communities are largely sustained by governm ...
s and
subcontractor
A subcontractor is an individual or (in many cases) a business that signs a contract to perform part or all of the obligations of another's contract.
Put simply the role of a subcontractor is to execute the job they are hired by the contractor f ...
s who provide
primary care
Primary care is the day-to-day healthcare given by a health care provider. Typically this provider acts as the first contact and principal point of continuing care for patients within a healthcare system, and coordinates other specialist care t ...
and
hospital
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized health science and auxiliary healthcare staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically has an emerge ...
services to the public in their own private
clinic
A clinic (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a health facility that is primarily focused on the care of outpatients. Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded. They typically cover the primary care needs ...
s or in
public hospitals
A public hospital, or government hospital, is a hospital which is government owned and is fully funded by the government and operates solely off the money that is collected from taxpayers to fund healthcare initiatives. In some countries, this typ ...
through direct contracts with the state or the counties or through state agencies such as the
National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF). Kenya has approximately 25,000 registered clinical officers for its 55 million people.
History
In her books, "Beyond the State: The Colonial Medical Service in British Africa" and "Indian Doctors in Kenya, 1895 - 1940: The Forgotten History", the author
Anna Greenwood notes that before 1923 there were twice as many Indian doctors as there were European doctors working in the
Colonial Medical Service
The Colonial Service, also known as His/Her Majesty's Colonial Service and replaced in 1954 by Her Majesty's Overseas Civil Service (HMOCS), was the British government service that administered most of Britain's overseas possessions, under the aut ...
. The Indian doctors had migrated to British Africa along with the
coolies
A coolie (also spelled koelie, kuli, khuli, khulie, cooli, cooly, or quli) is a term for a low-wage labourer, typically of South Asian or East Asian descent.
The word ''coolie'' was first popularized in the 16th century by European traders acros ...
who came to work on the
Uganda Railway
The Uganda Railway was a metre-gauge railway system and former British state-owned railway company. The line linked the interiors of Uganda and Kenya with the Indian Ocean port of Mombasa in Kenya. After a series of mergers and splits, the lin ...
. The Indian doctors faced
discrimination
Discrimination is the act of making unjustified distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong. People may be discriminated on the basis of race, gender, age, relig ...
and were not appointed to nor paid at the same rank as medical officers (European doctors). Instead, they were designated as Assistant or Sub-
assistant surgeon
A surgeon's mate was a rank in the Royal Navy for a medically trained assistant to the ship's surgeon. The rank was renamed assistant surgeon in 1805, and was considered equivalent to the rank of master's mate/mate. In 1807, first-rate would ...
s despite having attended similar 3 - 4 year Indian medical schools that were recognized by the
General Medical Council
The General Medical Council (GMC) is a public body that maintains the official register of medical practitioners within the United Kingdom. Its chief responsibility is to "protect, promote and maintain the health and safety of the public" by c ...
in the
UK and performing clinical and administrative duties that were largely identical to those of the European doctors. From the mid-1920s the Indians were removed from the colonial service as they were not deemed to be the proper face of the imperial services in Africa. The Indian Assistant and Sub-Assistant Surgeons were thus replaced with similarly qualified Africans who came to be known as clinical officers when the authorizing legislation was passed in 1988 abolishing the Assistant and Sub-Assistant Surgeon and similar positions.
Kenya
In
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
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, map_caption =
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, ...
, the origin of the clinical officer can be traced back to around 1888 when
Sir William Mackinnon, 1st Baronet
Sir William Mackinnon, 1st Baronet, (13 March 1823 – 22 June 1893) was a Scottish ship-owner and businessman who built up substantial commercial interests in India and East Africa. He established the British-India Steam Navigation Company and ...
founded the
Imperial British East Africa Company
The Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) was a commercial association founded to develop African trade in the areas controlled by the British Empire. The company was incorporated in London on 18 April 1888 and granted a royal charter by Q ...
. The company was granted
royal charter
A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent. Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws, the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, bu ...
by
Queen Victoria
Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until Death and state funeral of Queen Victoria, her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 21 ...
and was used by the
Government of the United Kingdom
ga, Rialtas a Shoilse gd, Riaghaltas a Mhòrachd
, image = HM Government logo.svg
, image_size = 220px
, image2 = Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (HM Government).svg
, image_size2 = 180px
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to establish its influence in the
East Africa Protectorate
East Africa Protectorate (also known as British East Africa) was an area in the African Great Lakes occupying roughly the same terrain as present-day Kenya from the Indian Ocean inland to the border with Uganda in the west. Controlled by Britai ...
(present day
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
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, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
). As the influence grew a healthcare system developed to meet the medical needs of the
colony
In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the ''metropole, metropolit ...
. In 1901
Kenyatta National Hospital
The Kenyatta National Hospital is the oldest hospital in Kenya. It is a public, tertiary, referral hospital for the Ministry of Health. It is also the teaching hospital of the University of Nairobi College of Health Sciences. It is the 2nd l ...
was established as the
Native Civil Hospital and later renamed the
King George VI Hospital after
King George VI
George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death in 1952. He was also the last Emperor of Ind ...
of the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
. In 1958 the
European Hospital (present-day
Nairobi Hospital) was established in the same area to serve the European
settler
A settler is a person who has human migration, migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there, often to colonize the area.
A settler who migrates to an area previously uninhabited or sparsely inhabited may be described as a ...
s. The need for qualified medical staff who would provide
preventive,
promotive,
curative and
rehabilitative services in hospitals and communities led to the establishment of the first formal training programme for clinical officers at
Kenyatta National Hospital
The Kenyatta National Hospital is the oldest hospital in Kenya. It is a public, tertiary, referral hospital for the Ministry of Health. It is also the teaching hospital of the University of Nairobi College of Health Sciences. It is the 2nd l ...
in 1928. The programme initially admitted experienced nurses and took them through a one-year certificate course which prepared them for advanced practice. The nursing pathway was discontinued and new students had to study
clinical medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practice ...
and
surgery
Surgery ''cheirourgikē'' (composed of χείρ, "hand", and ἔργον, "work"), via la, chirurgiae, meaning "hand work". is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pat ...
and sit and pass continuous assessment tests and final qualifying examinations for three years which covered
basic medical sciences,
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
,
surgery
Surgery ''cheirourgikē'' (composed of χείρ, "hand", and ἔργον, "work"), via la, chirurgiae, meaning "hand work". is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pat ...
,
paediatrics
Pediatrics ( also spelled ''paediatrics'' or ''pædiatrics'') is the branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. In the United Kingdom, paediatrics covers many of their youth until the ...
,
obstetrics and gynecology
Obstetrics and Gynaecology (also spelled as Obstetrics and Gynecology; abbreviated as Obs and Gynae, O&G, OB-GYN and OB/GYN) is the medical specialty that encompasses the two subspecialties of obstetrics (covering pregnancy, childbirth, and t ...
,
community health,
rural health
In medicine, rural health or rural medicine is the interdisciplinary study of health and health care delivery in rural environments. The concept of rural health incorporates many fields, including geography, midwifery, nursing, sociology, economi ...
and
health service management
Health administration, healthcare administration, healthcare management or hospital management is the field relating to leadership, management, and administration of public health systems, health care systems, hospitals, and hospital networ ...
before admission into a compulsory one-year hospital
internship
An internship is a period of work experience offered by an organization for a limited period of time. Once confined to medical graduates, internship is used practice for a wide range of placements in businesses, non-profit organizations and gover ...
programme and completion of a further three-year period of
clinical supervision Supervision is used in counselling, psychotherapy, and other mental health disciplines as well as many other professions engaged in working with people. Supervision may be applied as well to practitioners in somatic disciplines for their preparatory ...
..
The training expanded after Kenya's independence in 1962 through to 1970 when the newly created
University of Nairobi
The University of Nairobi (uonbi or UoN; ) is a collegiate research university based in Nairobi. It is the largest university in Kenya. Although its history as an educational institution dates back to 1956, it did not become an independent univer ...
started its own
medical school
A medical school is a tertiary educational institution, or part of such an institution, that teaches medicine, and awards a professional degree for physicians. Such medical degrees include the Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, M ...
and also used
Kenyatta National Hospital
The Kenyatta National Hospital is the oldest hospital in Kenya. It is a public, tertiary, referral hospital for the Ministry of Health. It is also the teaching hospital of the University of Nairobi College of Health Sciences. It is the 2nd l ...
as its
teaching hospital
A teaching hospital is a hospital or medical centre that provides medical education and training to future and current health professionals. Teaching hospitals are almost always affiliated with one or more universities and are often co-located ...
. Legislation to regulate medical practice by clinical officers was passed in 1988 thus creating the
Clinical Officers Council in 1989. In 1990 the
Kenya Medical Training College was established by the government with campuses in all major towns and in 1996 the
Roman Catholic Diocese of Kakamega
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Kakamega ( la, Kakamegaën(sis)) is a diocese located in the city of Kakamega in the Ecclesiastical province of Kisumu in Kenya.
History
* February 27, 1978: Established as Diocese of Kakamega from the Diocese of K ...
established ''St. Mary's School of Clinical Medicine'' at St. Mary's Hospital in
Mumias
Mumias is a town in Kakamega County of Kenya. The town has an urban population of 116,358 (2009 census).
Mumias was the centre of the Mumias District. The town is linked by road to Kakamega (in east), Busia (west), Bungoma (north), Butere (sout ...
which become the second and third institutions to offer the training in Kenya. By this time clinical officers had to complete an accredited four-year programme of study, practicals and
internship
An internship is a period of work experience offered by an organization for a limited period of time. Once confined to medical graduates, internship is used practice for a wide range of placements in businesses, non-profit organizations and gover ...
in
clinical medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practice ...
and
surgery
Surgery ''cheirourgikē'' (composed of χείρ, "hand", and ἔργον, "work"), via la, chirurgiae, meaning "hand work". is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pat ...
and have their names entered in the clinical officers register which was cleaned annually and taken to the government printer to be published in the
Kenya Gazette
The ''Kenya Gazette'' is an official publication of the government of the Republic of Kenya, a government gazette.
Contents
The ''Kenya Gazette'' publishes the following:
* Notices of new legislation
* Notices required to be published by law or ...
. Private practice by clinical officers who had left government service after working for a minimum of 10 years was now allowed.
Professional degree
A professional degree, formerly known in the US as a first professional degree, is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession, practice, or industry sector often meeting the academic requirements for licensure or accreditatio ...
s in clinical medicine and surgery were first offered by
Egerton University
Egerton University is a public university in Kenya. It is the oldest institution of higher education in Kenya.
Location
The main campus of the university is located in Njoro, a small community approximately , southwest of the town of Nakuru. T ...
and other universities as from 2006 and in 2012 the
Commission for University Education Act No. 42 of 2012 removed the accreditation role from all regulatory bodies such as the
Clinical Officers Council (COC) and the
Kenya Medical Practitioners and Dentists Council (KMPDC) making the
Commission for University Education
The Commission for Higher Education, is an agency of the Government of Kenya, regulated by the ''Commission for University Act No. 42 of 2012'' established by the Kenyan Parliament, that is mandated to plan, monitor, regulate, modify, improve and ...
(CUE) the only authorized accrediting body for all university degrees in
Kenya
)
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, ...
including the degree in clinical medicine. In 2017 the old legislation was
repealed
A repeal (O.F. ''rapel'', modern ''rappel'', from ''rapeler'', ''rappeler'', revoke, ''re'' and ''appeler'', appeal) is the removal or reversal of a law. There are two basic types of repeal; a repeal with a re-enactment is used to replace the law ...
and the
Clinical Officers Council reconstituted by the ''Clinical Officers (Training, Registration and Licensing) Act No. 20 of 2017'' which requires each clinical officer,
clinic
A clinic (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a health facility that is primarily focused on the care of outpatients. Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded. They typically cover the primary care needs ...
or
medical centre to be registered by the council and to maintain a current
practice license and a current
practising certificate A practising certificate is a licence to practise a particular profession.
In the legal profession, solicitors and barristers may need a current practising certificate before they can offer their services. The authority that administers the prac ...
in order to operate legally within the scope of
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
,
dentistry
Dentistry, also known as dental medicine and oral medicine, is the branch of medicine focused on the teeth, gums, and mouth. It consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions o ...
,
orthopedics
Orthopedic surgery or orthopedics ( alternatively spelt orthopaedics), is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system. Orthopedic surgeons use both surgical and nonsurgical means to treat musculoskeletal ...
or
health
Health, according to the World Health Organization, is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".World Health Organization. (2006)''Constitution of the World Health Organiza ...
work. A clinical officer may, with respect to patients - examine, diagnose, order laboratory and imaging investigations, prescribe treatment and perform procedures as per their scope of training. Clinical officers are members of the
Kenya Clinical Officers Association and the
Kenya Union of Clinical Officers. In June 2020 the
Public Service Commission approved the ''Revised Scheme of Service for Clinical Personnel'' which was issued by the ''State Department for Public Service'' to define the clinical officer's career structure, job description, standards for recruitment, training and advancement, and career planning and succession management within the
civil service
The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil servants hired on professional merit rather than appointed or elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leaders ...
. The scheme is administered by the
Ministry of Health through the ''Cabinet Secretary'' and the ''Principal Secretary'' in conjunction with the
Public Service Commission and the ''County Chief Officer for Health'' in each of the 47
Counties of Kenya
The Counties of Kenya ( sw, Kaunti za Kenya) are geographical units envisioned by the 2010 Constitution of Kenya as the new units of devolved government that replaced the previous provincial system. The establishment and executive powers of ...
.
Clinical officer is a
profession
A profession is a field of work that has been successfully ''professionalized''. It can be defined as a disciplined group of individuals, '' professionals'', who adhere to ethical standards and who hold themselves out as, and are accepted by ...
al designation established by the government through the
Clinical Officers Council (COC) which has
jurisdiction
Jurisdiction (from Latin 'law' + 'declaration') is the legal term for the legal authority granted to a legal entity to enact justice. In federations like the United States, areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, and federal levels.
Jur ...
and responsibility for the clinical officer's
training
Training is teaching, or developing in oneself or others, any skills and knowledge or Physical fitness, fitness that relate to specific practicality, useful Competence (human resources), competencies. Training has specific goals of improving on ...
,
registration
Register or registration may refer to:
Arts entertainment, and media Music
* Register (music), the relative "height" or range of a note, melody, part, instrument, etc.
* ''Register'', a 2017 album by Travis Miller
* Registration (organ), th ...
and
licensing
A license (or licence) is an official permission or permit to do, use, or own something (as well as the document of that permission or permit).
A license is granted by a party (licensor) to another party (licensee) as an element of an agreeme ...
and each officer must (1) study
clinical medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practice ...
and
surgery
Surgery ''cheirourgikē'' (composed of χείρ, "hand", and ἔργον, "work"), via la, chirurgiae, meaning "hand work". is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pat ...
or
clinical medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practice ...
and
community health for three or four years (2) graduate from a government-accredited medical training college (3) sit and pass a government licensing examination (4) complete an
internship
An internship is a period of work experience offered by an organization for a limited period of time. Once confined to medical graduates, internship is used practice for a wide range of placements in businesses, non-profit organizations and gover ...
year at a
teaching hospital
A teaching hospital is a hospital or medical centre that provides medical education and training to future and current health professionals. Teaching hospitals are almost always affiliated with one or more universities and are often co-located ...
(5) be registered as a clinical officer (6) have a
medical practice licence (7) complete a three-year period of
clinical supervision Supervision is used in counselling, psychotherapy, and other mental health disciplines as well as many other professions engaged in working with people. Supervision may be applied as well to practitioners in somatic disciplines for their preparatory ...
under a senior clinical officer or a senior medical officer (8) have a
practising certificate A practising certificate is a licence to practise a particular profession.
In the legal profession, solicitors and barristers may need a current practising certificate before they can offer their services. The authority that administers the prac ...
if they have a
private practice Private practice may refer to:
*Private sector practice
**Practice of law
In its most general sense, the practice of law involves giving legal advice to clients, drafting legal documents for clients, and representing clients in legal negotiati ...
which allows one to provide
general medical services
General medical services (GMS) is the range of healthcare that is provided by general practitioners (GPs or family doctors) as part of the National Health Service in the United Kingdom. The NHS specifies what GPs, as independent contractors, are e ...
on their own directly to the public (9) undergo one or two additional years of
specialized training (optional) and (10) become a
trainer. Clinical Officer (CO) is a protected
professional
A professional is a member of a profession or any person who works in a specified professional activity. The term also describes the standards of education and training that prepare members of the profession with the particular knowledge and skil ...
title and its use by unregistered persons is prohibited by law and punishable by up to five years in jail with or without a fine. Globally, the title may not have legal restrictions and can refer to a job grade rather than a medical qualification such as junior assistive clinical staff (e.g. in
Zambia
Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...
and
Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
), licensed medical professionals (e.g. in
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
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, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
and
Malawi
Malawi (; or aláwi Tumbuka: ''Malaŵi''), officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast ...
) or high-level
corporate
A corporation is an organization—usually a group of people or a company—authorized by the state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law "born out of statute"; a legal person in legal context) and re ...
officers,
directors
Director may refer to:
Literature
* ''Director'' (magazine), a British magazine
* ''The Director'' (novel), a 1971 novel by Henry Denker
* ''The Director'' (play), a 2000 play by Nancy Hasty
Music
* Director (band), an Irish rock band
* ''D ...
, and
managers
Management (or managing) is the administration of an organization, whether it is a business, a nonprofit organization, or a government body. It is the art and science of managing resources of the business.
Management includes the activities o ...
(e.g.
Chief Clinical Officers in
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
).
A clinical officer observes, interviews and
examines sick and healthy individuals in all
specialties to determine and document their health status and applies relevant
pathological
Pathology is the study of the causal, causes and effects of disease or injury. The word ''pathology'' also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when us ...
,
radiological
In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. This includes:
* ''electromagnetic radiation'', such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visib ...
,
psychiatric
Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various maladaptations related to mood, behaviour, cognition, and perceptions. See glossary of psychiatry.
Initial psy ...
and
community health techniques, procedures and findings needed to
classify diseases and related health problems and to establish a provisional or final
diagnosis
Diagnosis is the identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon. Diagnosis is used in many different disciplines, with variations in the use of logic, analytics, and experience, to determine " cause and effect". In systems engin ...
upon which to prescribe, initiate, carry out or terminate treatment or
therapy
A therapy or medical treatment (often abbreviated tx, Tx, or Tx) is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a medical diagnosis.
As a rule, each therapy has indications and contraindications. There are many different ...
based on their specialized knowledge, skills and experience in
clinical pharmacology
Clinical pharmacology has been defined as "that discipline that teaches, does research, frames policy, gives information and advice about the actions and proper uses of medicines in humans and implements that knowledge in clinical practice". Clinic ...
, use of
clinical guideline
Clinical may refer to: Healthcare
* Of or about a clinic, a healthcare facility
* Of or about the practice of medicine Other uses
* ''Clinical'' (film), a 2017 American horror thriller
See also
*
*
* Clinical chemistry, the analysis of bodily flu ...
s,
best practice
A best practice is a method or technique that has been generally accepted as superior to other known alternatives because it often produces results that are superior to those achieved by other means or because it has become a standard way of doing ...
s and
disease patterns as well as individual patient and
community
A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, tow ...
characteristics while being actively
pharmacovigilant to prevent, identify, minimize and manage
drug reaction
An adverse drug reaction (ADR) is a harmful, unintended result caused by taking medication. ADRs may occur following a single dose or prolonged administration of a drug or result from the combination of two or more drugs. The meaning of this term ...
s, drug errors,
side effect
In medicine, a side effect is an effect, whether therapeutic or adverse, that is secondary to the one intended; although the term is predominantly employed to describe adverse effects, it can also apply to beneficial, but unintended, consequence ...
s and
poisoning
A poison can be any substance that is harmful to the body. It can be swallowed, inhaled, injected or absorbed through the skin. Poisoning is the harmful effect that occurs when too much of that substance has been taken. Poisoning is not to ...
,
overdiagnosis
Overdiagnosis is the diagnosis of disease that will never cause symptoms or death during a patient's ordinarily expected lifetime and thus presents no practical threat regardless of being pathologic. Overdiagnosis is a side effect of screening fo ...
,
overscreening Overscreening, also called unnecessary screening, is the performance of medical screening without a medical indication to do so. Screening is a medical test in a healthy person who is showing no symptoms of a disease and is intended to detect a dis ...
,
overtreatment and
futile care Futile medical care is the continued provision of medical care or treatment to a patient when there is no reasonable hope of a cure or benefit.
Some proponents of evidence-based medicine suggest discontinuing the use of any treatment that has not b ...
. A clinical officer performs general and specialized medical duties such as diagnosis and treatment of disease and injury, ordering and interpreting medical tests, performing routine medical and surgical procedures, referring patients to other practitioners and managing health departments, institutions, projects and systems.
Clinical officers,
medical officer
A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
s and
medical practitioners are the only officers who are
gazetted
A gazette is an official journal, a newspaper of record, or simply a newspaper.
In English and French speaking countries, newspaper publishers have applied the name ''Gazette'' since the 17th century; today, numerous weekly and daily newspapers ...
and
licensed
A license (or licence) is an official permission or permit to do, use, or own something (as well as the document of that permission or permit).
A license is granted by a party (licensor) to another party (licensee) as an element of an agreeme ...
to practice
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
in
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
. They work under
oath
Traditionally an oath (from Anglo-Saxon ', also called plight) is either a statement of fact or a promise taken by a sacrality as a sign of verity. A common legal substitute for those who conscientiously object to making sacred oaths is to ...
and generate credible health
data
In the pursuit of knowledge, data (; ) is a collection of discrete values that convey information, describing quantity, quality, fact, statistics, other basic units of meaning, or simply sequences of symbols that may be further interpreted ...
and
information
Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform. At the most fundamental level information pertains to the interpretation of that which may be sensed. Any natural process that is not completely random ...
within communities and health institutions and cascade the same to the county and national governments, government agencies and third parties through standard recording and reporting tools from the
Ministry of Health which are used to capture data on disease outbreaks, physical injuries and deformities, mental illness, drug resistance, disability, nutritional disorders, births and deaths among others.
Overview
To practice medicine and surgery or dentistry as a clinical officer one requires at least four years of full-time medical training, supervised clinical practice and internship at an accredited medical training institution and hospitals and registration with the relevant medical board in their country. After a prescribed number of years in active practice, one may complete a further one or two-year residency programme in order to specialize in any approved branch of clinical medicine and surgery such as
anesthesia
Anesthesia is a state of controlled, temporary loss of sensation or awareness that is induced for medical or veterinary purposes. It may include some or all of analgesia (relief from or prevention of pain), paralysis (muscle relaxation), ...
or
pediatric
Pediatrics ( also spelled ''paediatrics'' or ''pædiatrics'') is the branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. In the United Kingdom, paediatrics covers many of their youth until the ...
s, or get an advanced medical qualification from the university. There are no pathways (post-basic or post-graduate entry-level conversion programs) for nurses and other health workers hence it takes at least eight years of specialised medical training and experience for a clinical officer to graduate with a post-basic qualification. "Clinical officer" in some countries such as
Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
and
Zambia
Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...
refers to a different cadre of health workers, comparable to "medical assistants" in
Malawi
Malawi (; or aláwi Tumbuka: ''Malaŵi''), officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast ...
, who have less than three years of training but who may upgrade to a similar level by becoming
Assistant Medical Officer
A clinical officer (CO) is a gazetted officer who is qualified and licensed to practice medicine.
In Kenya the basic training for clinical officers starts after high school and takes four or five years ending on successful completion of a one ...
s (AMOs) or
Medical Licentiates (MLs)."medical assistants/Sub Assistant Community Medical Officer" in
Bangladesh
Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...
, a Four Year medical diploma course conducting state medical faculty of Bangladesh under ministry of Health and family welfare.
A clinician can specialize in any other field that is deemed appropriate by them and not just clinical medicine. China also has masters of clinical medicine. In countries like Tanzania, UK, and other countries, clinical medicine is regarded as a medical course and graduates are allowed to apply to masters of medicine specialties.
No significant difference has been demonstrated in studies comparing treatment decisions, patient outcomes, quality of care provided and level of knowledge about diseases between a clinical officer and a medical officer (a non-specialist physician) except in countries where nurses were mistakenly assessed as clinical officers. However, because of the nature of practice, populations served and resources at ones disposal, a clinical officer is less likely to administer expensive treatment, prescribe expensive (but not necessarily better) drugs or engage in
futile care Futile medical care is the continued provision of medical care or treatment to a patient when there is no reasonable hope of a cure or benefit.
Some proponents of evidence-based medicine suggest discontinuing the use of any treatment that has not b ...
.
The success of
HIV/AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus. Following initial infection an individual ...
prevention and treatment initiatives in Africa is mostly attributed to use of clinical officers to diagnose the disease and provide comprehensive medical care. Access to emergency obstetric care through greater deployment of the clinical officer is one way of attaining the
Millennium Development Goals
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight international development goals for the year 2015 that had been established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000, following the adoption of the United Nations Millenniu ...
4 (reducing child mortality) and 5 (improving maternal health).
[University of Birmingham]
''Major analysis shows value of non-physician clinicians for maternal health in sub-Saharan Africa''.
Posted on 20 May 2011.
Worldwide, patients are seen by many other practitioners other than the traditional doctor such as:
*
Osteopathic physicians
Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO or D.O., or in Australia DO USA) is a medical degree conferred by the 38 osteopathic medical schools in the United States. DO and Doctor of Medicine (MD) degrees are equivalent: a DO graduate may become licen ...
,
Podiatrist
A podiatrist ( ) is a medical professional devoted to the treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, and related structures of the leg. The term originated in North America but has now become the accepted term in the English-speaking world for ...
s,
Optometrist
Optometry is a specialized health care profession that involves examining the eyes and related structures for defects or abnormalities. Optometrists are health care professionals who typically provide comprehensive primary eye care.
In the Uni ...
s and
Anesthesiologist assistants in the United States
*
Emergency and Clinical Officer Pakistan
*
Physician Assistants
A physician assistant or physician associate (PA) is a type of mid-level health care provider. In North America PAs may diagnose illnesses, develop and manage treatment plans, prescribe medications, and may serve as a principal healthcare prov ...
in the United States, United Kingdom, Netherlands,
Liberia
Liberia (), officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the West African coast. It is bordered by Sierra Leone to Liberia–Sierra Leone border, its northwest, Guinea to its north, Ivory Coast to its east, and the Atlantic Ocean ...
and
Ghana
Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and To ...
*
Assistant Doctor
Assistant doctors are licensed healthcare workers in China that are graduates of three-year medical training institutions.
China has a three-tier 3-5-7 healthcare system composed of assistant doctors, who train for 3 years; doctors, who train for ...
s in China,
*
Surgical Care and
Emergency Care Practitioners in the UK,
*
Assistant Physicians in Saudi Arabia,
*
Health Extension Officers in Papua New Guinea
*
medical assistants/Sub Assistant Community Medical Officer in
Bangladesh
Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...
*
Medical Assistants in Fiji
*
Assistant Medical Officer
A clinical officer (CO) is a gazetted officer who is qualified and licensed to practice medicine.
In Kenya the basic training for clinical officers starts after high school and takes four or five years ending on successful completion of a one ...
s in Malaysia
*
Surgical Technologists in Mozambique
*
Clinical Associates
Clinical Associates are a category of health professional found in South Africa. They assess patients, make diagnoses, prescribe treatment and perform minor surgery under the supervision of a physician.
Registration with the Medical and Dentists ...
in South Africa.
Scope of practice
A clinical officer takes the
Hippocratic oath
The Hippocratic Oath is an oath of ethics historically taken by physicians. It is one of the most widely known of Greek medical texts. In its original form, it requires a new physician to swear, by a number of healing gods, to uphold specific e ...
and, depending on jurisdiction, may be registered by the same statutory board as physicians (in the southern countries such as
Zambia
Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...
and
Malawi
Malawi (; or aláwi Tumbuka: ''Malaŵi''), officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast ...
) or a separate board (in the eastern countries such as
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
and
Uganda
}), is a landlocked country in East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
). The broad nature of medical training prepares one to work at all levels of the
health care system
Health, according to the World Health Organization, is "a state of complete physical, Mental health, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".World Health Organization. (2006)''Constitution of the World H ...
. Most work in
primary care
Primary care is the day-to-day healthcare given by a health care provider. Typically this provider acts as the first contact and principal point of continuing care for patients within a healthcare system, and coordinates other specialist care t ...
health centres and clinics, and
casualty department
An emergency department (ED), also known as an accident and emergency department (A&E), emergency room (ER), emergency ward (EW) or casualty department, is a medical treatment facility specializing in emergency medicine, the acute care of pati ...
s in hospitals where one will diagnose and treat all common diseases, including serious and life-threatening ones, in all age groups; and stabilise then admit, discharge or refer emergency cases. In smaller hospitals one may work as a
hospitalist
Hospital medicine is a medical specialty that exists in some countries as a branch of family medicine or internal medicine, dealing with the care of acutely ill hospitalized patients. Physicians whose primary professional focus is caring for ho ...
and one who has specialized in a clinical field provides advanced medical and surgical care and treatment such as administering anesthesia, performing general or specialised surgery, supervising other health workers and other administrative duties.
A clinical officer's
scope of practice
Scope of practice describes the procedures, actions, and processes that a healthcare practitioner is permitted to undertake in keeping with the terms of their professional license. The scope of practice is limited to that which the law allows for ...
depends on one's training and experience, jurisdiction and workplace policies. In Malawi, for instance, a clinical officer performs all routine surgical and obstetric operations such as exploratory laparatomy, emergency orthopaedics and
Caesarean section
Caesarean section, also known as C-section or caesarean delivery, is the surgical procedure by which one or more babies are delivered through an incision in the mother's abdomen, often performed because vaginal delivery would put the baby or mo ...
. However, in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique one has to undergo further specialized training in order to perform such major operations safely.
In rural and small urban health facilities a clinical officer is usually the highest medical care provider and works with minimal resources, relying on the traditional
medical history
The medical history, case history, or anamnesis (from Greek: ἀνά, ''aná'', "open", and μνήσις, ''mnesis'', "memory") of a patient is information gained by a physician by asking specific questions, either to the patient or to other peo ...
and
physical examination
In a physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination, a medical practitioner examines a patient for any possible medical signs or symptoms of a medical condition. It generally consists of a series of questions about the patien ...
, often with little or no laboratory facilities, to make a diagnosis and provide treatment. In bigger and better equipped facilities a clinical officer generally acquires superior knowledge, experience and skills and provides high quality and a wider range of services in district, provincial and national hospitals, universities and colleges, research institutions and private medical facilities.
A clinical officer is usually the lowest entry-level cadre in the medical hierarchy but with years of experience and/or further training one can rise to the same or a higher grade than a physician. In most countries, however, wages are usually low compared to training and responsibilities and career progression is usually restricted by awarding terminal degrees and diplomas, training students who have not attained the minimum university entry grade and, in some countries, not awarding any degree or recognition for advanced training. In such countries, this usually results in a demotivated and low quality workforce and resulting poor health indicators.
The United States'
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the national public health agency of the United States. It is a United States federal agency, under the Department of Health and Human Services, and is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgi ...
and other international health and research institutions make extensive use of COs in their projects in Africa and clinical officers have been the backbone of HIV care and treatment enabling the rollout of ARVS to even the most rural hard to reach areas in Africa.
Research done by the
University of Birmingham
, mottoeng = Through efforts to heights
, established = 1825 – Birmingham School of Medicine and Surgery1836 – Birmingham Royal School of Medicine and Surgery1843 – Queen's College1875 – Mason Science College1898 – Mason Univers ...
and published in the ''
British Medical Journal
''The BMJ'' is a weekly peer-reviewed medical trade journal, published by the trade union the British Medical Association (BMA). ''The BMJ'' has editorial freedom from the BMA. It is one of the world's oldest general medical journals. Origi ...
'' concluded that the effectiveness and safety of
caeserian sections carried out by clinical officers did not differ significantly compared with doctors.
Better health outcomes including lower
maternal mortality
Maternal death or maternal mortality is defined in slightly different ways by several different health organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines maternal death as the death of a pregnant mother due to complications related to pre ...
rates were observed where COs had completed further specialised training particularly in anaesthesia.
In the multi-country study, poor outcomes were observed in
Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso (, ; , ff, 𞤄𞤵𞤪𞤳𞤭𞤲𞤢 𞤊𞤢𞤧𞤮, italic=no) is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the ...
and
Zaire
Zaire (, ), officially the Republic of Zaire (french: République du Zaïre, link=no, ), was a Congolese state from 1971 to 1997 in Central Africa that was previously and is now again known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Zaire was, ...
- the only countries where the procedure was performed by trained nurses. Higher rates of
wound infection
An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable dis ...
and
Wound dehiscence
Wound dehiscence is a surgical complication in which a wound ruptures along a surgical incision. Risk factors include age, collagen disorder such as Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, diabetes, obesity, poor knotting or grabbing of stitches, and trauma ...
in these countries was thought to be due to the nurses' poor surgical technique and need for enhanced training.
≠
Kenya
Kenya has a comprehensive framework of parallel laws and regulations that govern the medical practice of medical officers and clinical officers. The supreme health policy and medical authorities in the republic are the cabinet secretary of health and the director of medical services who oversee the registration and licensing of medical institutions and the training, registration and licensing of medical practitioners through the
Medical Practitioners and Dentists Board and the
Clinical Officers Council.
As a
British colony in 1928,
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
started training a select group of natives to practice medicine and care for the local population who were increasingly accepting and seeking western medicine. After independence from Britain in 1963, medical training in Kenya initially adopted the four-year medical school system used in the US rather than the six-year UK model. This was heavily influenced by
the Kennedy Airlift
The Kennedy Airlift was started in 1959 by a 28-year-old Kenyan, Tom Mboya, who sought support for promising Kenyan students to get college and university educations in the United States and Canada. It brought hundreds of students from East Africa ...
which followed initial funding by the
African-American Students Foundation (AASF) in 1959 and led to hundreds of young Kenyan students getting scholarships to study in American institutions: These students came back to Kenya after their studies and joined the civil service in the early
post-independence Kenya. It was also around this time that the first
DOs were accepted as medical officers by the US civil service and by 1967 the structure and duration of medical training in Kenya was similar to the US
MD training. When the
University of Nairobi
The University of Nairobi (uonbi or UoN; ) is a collegiate research university based in Nairobi. It is the largest university in Kenya. Although its history as an educational institution dates back to 1956, it did not become an independent univer ...
split from the
University of East Africa
The University of East Africa was established on 29 June 1963"Universities: East Africa", ''A Historical Companion To Postcolonial Thought In English'' (Columbia University Press, 2005) Prem Poddar and David Johnson, eds., p. 489. and served Keny ...
and became the first university in Kenya in 1970, it continued to teach the six-year British degree which led to the creation of two statutory bodies: the
Kenya Medical Practitioners and Dentists Board in 1978 which had jurisdiction over medical officers and physicians, and the
Clinical Officers Council in 1989 which had jurisdiction over clinical officers. Instead of
residency
Residency may refer to:
* Domicile (law), the act of establishing or maintaining a residence in a given place
** Permanent residency, indefinite residence within a country despite not having citizenship
* Residency (medicine), a stage of postgra ...
for the clinical officer, the higher diploma in paediatrics, ophthalmology and other specializations was introduced in the late 1970s as a post-basic course for those who had worked for three or more years and, after ten years of service, one became a Senior Clinical Officer and qualified for a licence to practice under his own name as a private medical practitioner. The
BSc. Clinical Medicine and Surgery degree was later introduced in 2006.
Clinical officers play a central role in Kenya's medical sector today. There were 8,600 clinical officers on the register in 2010 compared to 7,100 medical officers. They are trained by the universities, the Kenya Medical Training College (KMTC), St. Mary's School of Clinical Medicine and other private institutions. The Ministry of Health, through the
Clinical Officers Council (COC)
regulates their training and practice, accredits training institutions, and approves the syllabi of the universities and colleges. The
Kenya Medical Training College (KMTC), also under the Ministry of Health, has campuses in regional teaching hospitals and trains the majority of clinical officers. St. Mary's School of Clinical Medicine and St. Mary's Mission Hospital in
Mumias
Mumias is a town in Kakamega County of Kenya. The town has an urban population of 116,358 (2009 census).
Mumias was the centre of the Mumias District. The town is linked by road to Kakamega (in east), Busia (west), Bungoma (north), Butere (sout ...
, owned by the Roman Catholic diocese of
Kakamega, was the first private institution to train clinical officers. It admits students who got the minimum university entry grade in high school and have passed a written examination and oral interview. The students sit the same examination as their counterparts at the KMTC and are examined by consultants from the public service.
On 28 October 1981 lawmakers addressed the National Assembly as follows:
*
Mr. Orengo: On a point of order Mr. Deputy Speaker Sir. Is it really in order for the hon. Member for Butere to impute that this house does not know that clinical officers are not allowed to practice. I think the motion is just after legalizing the position and not saying that they are not allowed to practice.
*
Mr. Shikuku: Mr. Deputy Speaker, we heard Dr. Chibule saying that he is going to give us a list of 20 clinical officers who are being refused permission to practice and forced to go back to government practice and this is the thing I am trying to reply to. The hon. Member was in the house when Dr. Chibule said this but I do not know why he did not hear him say so, but nevertheless, let me continue. Mr. Deputy speaker, Sir, the clinical officers helped the government during the recent doctors' strike in the country when we virtually depended on them. Now, Sir, part (a) of this motion is not the responsibility of the Ministry of Health because if anybody wants to pursue higher education, even from this house, it is upon him first to make sure he has the prerequisite qualifications to pursue higher studies. So, with that, the ministry is not concerned. Part (b) of the motion is the most important. We are requiring the enactment of a law to cover our present clinical officers to allow them to practice and be covered by the law as the doctors are covered. This is the point and the assistant minister for health has produced a paper which is going to be presented before the cabinet after which it will come to the house. Now, Sir, where do we disagree? There is no place where we disagree. What we are trying to say is that the government is already doing what it is being asked to do, and that is why we are saying that this matter has more or less been overtaken by events. Therefore, we are not going to be asked to do what we are already doing.
*Mr. Orengo: On a point of order, Mr. Deputy Speaker, Sir.
*Mr. Shikuku: You can have as many points of order as you like!
The dual diploma in
clinical medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practice ...
and
surgery
Surgery ''cheirourgikē'' (composed of χείρ, "hand", and ἔργον, "work"), via la, chirurgiae, meaning "hand work". is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pat ...
plus an
internship
An internship is a period of work experience offered by an organization for a limited period of time. Once confined to medical graduates, internship is used practice for a wide range of placements in businesses, non-profit organizations and gover ...
year is the standard qualification for clinical officers which is awarded on completion of a four-year training programme which started as various programmes that were used to train medical practitioners in the
East Africa Protectorate
East Africa Protectorate (also known as British East Africa) was an area in the African Great Lakes occupying roughly the same terrain as present-day Kenya from the Indian Ocean inland to the border with Uganda in the west. Controlled by Britai ...
in the 1920s and which now resembles the North American four-year
MD and
DO medical school programmes (including being structured in 9 trimesters over 3 years to meet the minimum 130 weeks of instruction recommended by the
Liaison Committee on Medical Education
The Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) is an accrediting body for educational programs at schools of medicine in the United States and Canada.''Glossary.'' ACGME website. The LCME is sponsored by the Association of American Medical Co ...
) instead of the more recent six-year
MBChB
Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery ( la, Medicinae Baccalaureus, Baccalaureus Chirurgiae; abbreviated most commonly MBBS), is the primary medical degree awarded by medical schools in countries that follow the tradition of the United Kin ...
programme that was introduced in the 1970s and is more common in European and
Commonwealth countries:
Medical Officers training:
* Is a six-year
professional degree
A professional degree, formerly known in the US as a first professional degree, is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession, practice, or industry sector often meeting the academic requirements for licensure or accreditatio ...
programme accredited by the
Medical Practitioners and Dentists Board involving
* Two years of pre-clinical training in medical sciences followed by
* Four years of training in clinical medicine, surgery and community health including a mandatory one-year internship and
* Registration, licensing and
gazettment by the Medical Practitioners and Dentists Board giving
* Unlimited practice rights with
* Specialisation and private practice allowed and eligible for full professional membership of the Kenya Medical Association (KMA)
Clinical Officers training:
* Is a four or five-year
professional diploma or degree programme accredited by the
Clinical Officers Council involving
* One year of pre-clinical training in medical sciences followed by
* Three or four years of training in clinical medicine, surgery and community health including a mandatory one-year internship and
* Registration, licensing and
gazettment by the Clinical Officers Council giving
*Unlimited practice rights with
* Specialisation and private practice allowed and eligible for full professional membership of the Kenya Clinical Officers Association (KCOA)
The current training follows international guidelines and the two qualifications are awarded jointly on successful completion of a comprehensive nine trimester programme of full-time study, practicals and examinations which are covered over three years leading to a fourth mandatory year of internship in a teaching hospital. A fifth and sixth residency specialisation years are undertaken after registration by the
Clinical Officers Council and three years of work experience in
general medicine which leads to the award of a general degree in
clinical medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practice ...
or a specialist
diploma
A diploma is a document awarded by an educational institution (such as a college or university) testifying the recipient has graduated by successfully completing their courses of studies. Historically, it has also referred to a charter or offici ...
in
pediatrics
Pediatrics ( also spelled ''paediatrics'' or ''pædiatrics'') is the branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. In the United Kingdom, paediatrics covers many of their youth until th ...
,
orthopedics
Orthopedic surgery or orthopedics ( alternatively spelt orthopaedics), is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system. Orthopedic surgeons use both surgical and nonsurgical means to treat musculoskeletal ...
,
psychiatry
Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various maladaptations related to mood, behaviour, cognition, and perceptions. See glossary of psychiatry.
Initial psych ...
,
anaesthesia
Anesthesia is a state of controlled, temporary loss of sensation or awareness that is induced for medical or veterinary purposes. It may include some or all of analgesia (relief from or prevention of pain), paralysis (muscle relaxation), a ...
,
reproductive health
Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a field of research, healthcare, and social activism that explores the health of an individual's reproductive system and sexual wellbeing during all stages of their life.
The term can also be further de ...
and other specialties.
A clinical officer is therefore able to graduate and join the workforce in a minimum of four calendar years and provides medical services within the full scope of
family
Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
and
emergency
An emergency is an urgent, unexpected, and usually dangerous situation that poses an immediate risk to health, life, property, or environment and requires immediate action. Most emergencies require urgent intervention to prevent a worsening ...
medicine or within a narrower scope depending on their area of specialisation.
Registration by the
Clinical Officers Council (COC) entitles one to render medical services in any public or private medical institution or to practice medicine independently as a private practitioner. Registration also qualifies one to join and participate in the affairs of the
Kenya Clinical Officers Association (KCOA), including its annual
KCOA Scientific Conference, and the
Kenya Union of Clinical Officers (KUCO). As per the government's Revised Scheme of Service for Clinical Personnel (2014) a clinical officer works at any of 8 grades depending on ones seniority.
![Table rco co mo medical practitioners](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Table_rco_co_mo_medical_practitioners.png)
As
gazetted officers all registered clinical officers are legally authorized to prepare, sign, issue and keep safe custody of official state documents such as
medical examination
In a physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination, a medical practitioner examines a patient for any possible medical signs or symptoms of a medical condition. It generally consists of a series of questions about the patie ...
reports,
sick note
''Sick Note'' is a British black comedy television series starring Rupert Grint and Nick Frost. It was created and written by Nat Saunders and James Serafinowicz and directed by Matt Lipsey. It first aired on 7 November 2017 on Sky One. In April ...
s,
postmortem examination
An autopsy (post-mortem examination, obduction, necropsy, or autopsia cadaverum) is a surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine the cause, mode, and manner of death or to evaluate any di ...
reports and
death certificate
A death certificate is either a legal document issued by a medical practitioner which states when a person died, or a document issued by a government civil registration office, that declares the date, location and cause of a person's death, as ...
s and to appear in courts of law as expert witnesses. For this reason, a clinical officer is the officer in-charge of a health center or a district hospital and is part of the medical team in bigger hospitals where one may head a department or work under a senior clinical officer or a physician.
[Mullan F, Frehywot S. Non-physician clinicians in 47 sub-Saharan African countries. ''Lancet''; 2007, 370: 2158–63.][AMREF]
''Clinical Officers''.
Accessed 2011-04-06.
Clinical officers are direct healthcare providers who manage and administer health institutions, medical schemes and projects in
primary healthcare
Primary health care, or PHC, refers to "essential health care" that is based on scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and technology. This makes universal health care accessible to all individuals and families in a community. PHC in ...
(PHC) settings and are frontline stakeholders in
Universal Health Coverage
Universal health care (also called universal health coverage, universal coverage, or universal care) is a health care system in which all residents of a particular country or region are assured access to health care. It is generally organized a ...
in
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
which is one of the key pillars of the government's 5-year development plan under
President Uhuru Kenyatta
Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta (born 26 October 1961) is a Kenyan politician who served as the fourth president of Kenya from 2013 to 2022.
Kenyatta was chosen by Daniel Arap Moi as his preferred successor, but Kenyatta was defeated by opposition l ...
. The four pillars of the 5-year development plan are 1.
Manufacturing
Manufacturing is the creation or production of goods with the help of equipment, labor, machines, tools, and chemical or biological processing or formulation. It is the essence of secondary sector of the economy. The term may refer to a r ...
2.
Affordable housing
Affordable housing is housing which is deemed affordable to those with a household income at or below the median as rated by the national government or a local government by a recognized housing affordability index. Most of the literature on affo ...
3.
Universal Health Coverage
Universal health care (also called universal health coverage, universal coverage, or universal care) is a health care system in which all residents of a particular country or region are assured access to health care. It is generally organized a ...
and 4.
Food security
Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World F ...
.
Legal status
In Kenya's public health system, a clinical officer is an alternative practitioner who is trained and authorized by law to perform any technical, administrative or legal duties that require a medical doctor. However, due to the shorter training period when compared to medical officers (i.e. 4 years instead of 6 years), a clinical officer joins the public service at a lower grade and gains seniority through experience, additional training or further education.
Like the term medical officer, the term clinical officer is a protected title whose use without the authority of the
Clinical Officers Council is prohibited and a punishable offense under Kenyan laws. Court rulings uphold that a registration certificate or a licence issued by the council automatically confers the status of a medical officer or a qualified medical practitioner to a clinician and the titles are used interchangeably in medico-legal documents because a qualified clinical officer has a recognized medical qualification and is eligible for registration as a medical practitioner under Section 11(1) of the Medical Practitioners and Dentists Act in addition to being expressly authorized to practice medicine, surgery or dentistry by Section 7(4) of the Clinical Officers Act'
Criminal Appeal 198 of 2008 - Kenya Lawhttp://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/13452/ Criminal Case 6 of 2004 - Kenya La
CAP. 249
From the Anatomy Act, the legal definition of a medical officer is any public officer who is entitled to be registered as a medical practitioner if he applied under any law in the country: Section 14(1) of the Medical Practitioners and Dentists Act and Section 7(4) of the Clinical Officers Act are the only two laws that can authorize one to practice medicine and render medical or dental services in the public sector if they hold a registration certificate or in the private sector if they hold a current licence as well. The Public Health Act further defines a medical officer of health as a public officer who is responsible for health nationally (the Director of Medical Services and the Director clinical services) or regionally (the county or sub-county Medical Officer of Health and the county or sub-county Clinical Officer).
Like his counterparts in the public service, a clinical officer in the private sector has the same practice rights and privileges as a medical officer and both are authorized to work independently and specialize in any approved branch of general or specialised medicine. The Competition Act No.12 of 2010 directly prohibits and addresses multi-sectoral abuse of dominance, consumer welfare, exemptions, cartels and unwarranted concentration of economic power among practitioners.
A register of active clinical officers and medical institutions is available online on the Clinical Officers Council and Ministry of Health websites.
The Clinical Officers (Training, Registration and Licensing) Act No. 20 of 2017
The ''Clinical Officers (Training, Registration and Licensing) Act No.20 of 2017'' is the law that governs the medical practice of a clinical Officer. It establishes the Clinical Officers Council whose functions are to:
*advise the government on policy matters relating to clinical medicine practice
*prescribe the minimum educational entry requirements for persons wishing to be trained as clinical officers
*approve institutions other than those established or accredited under the Universities Act, 2012 for the training of clinical officers
*establish, approve and accredit programs for continuing professional educational programs
*register and license clinical officers for the purposes of this Act
*maintain a register and records of all clinical officers registered under this Act
*cause to be published in the Kenya Gazette every calendar year the names of all registered clinical officers
*promote development and adoption of codes of practice
*regulate the professional conduct and ensure the maintenance and improvement of the standards of practice of clinical medicine
*collaborate with other medical professional associations, organisations and other relevant bodies, in the furtherance of the functions of the council and those bodies
*consider and deal with any other matter pertaining to clinical officers including prescribing badges, insignias or uniforms to be worn by clinical officers and
*carry out other functions related to the implementation of this Act.
Training
Although training programmes existed as early as 1928, the first university to train clinical officers was
Egerton University
Egerton University is a public university in Kenya. It is the oldest institution of higher education in Kenya.
Location
The main campus of the university is located in Njoro, a small community approximately , southwest of the town of Nakuru. T ...
in 1999. Programs also exist at
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kenya Methodist University (KEMU)
Mt Kenya University. and
Presbyterian university of East Africa (PUEA)., and
Meru University of Science and Technology (MUST). The diploma in Clinical Medicine and Surgery is completed in nine 15-week trimesters over three calendar years (or 135 weeks which, notably, exceeds the minimum 130 weeks of instruction required to complete US MD programs). The
BSc. Clinical Medicine and Surgery is completed over 4 years.
Students study the
biomedical and clinical sciences such as
anatomy
Anatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its ...
,
physiology
Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical ...
and
pathology
Pathology is the study of the causes and effects of disease or injury. The word ''pathology'' also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when used in ...
in the first year followed by the clinical subjects (
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
,
surgery
Surgery ''cheirourgikē'' (composed of χείρ, "hand", and ἔργον, "work"), via la, chirurgiae, meaning "hand work". is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pat ...
,
pediatric
Pediatrics ( also spelled ''paediatrics'' or ''pædiatrics'') is the branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. In the United Kingdom, paediatrics covers many of their youth until the ...
s,
obstetric
Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surg ...
s and
gynecology
Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) is the area of medicine that involves the treatment of women's diseases, especially those of the reproductive organs. It is often paired with the field of obstetrics, forming the combined are ...
) in the second year. The third and fourth year involves supervised clinical practice and internship in teaching hospitals where they rotate in all the departments, receive beside lectures, attend consultants' ward rounds, clerk patients and present medical histories, perform deliveries and first-assist in major surgery. They also attend clinical meetings and write prescriptions which at this stage must be counter-signed by a supervising clinician.
There is special emphasis on
primary care
Primary care is the day-to-day healthcare given by a health care provider. Typically this provider acts as the first contact and principal point of continuing care for patients within a healthcare system, and coordinates other specialist care t ...
with modules on
community health taught throughout the course. Before starting their internship after the third year, clinical officers spend at least one month in a Provincial Rural Health Training Centre where they immunize children, examine pregnant women and offer family planning services in mother and
child health
Pediatric nursing is part of the nursing profession, specifically revolving around the care of neonates and children up to adolescence. The word, ''pediatrics'', comes from the Greek words 'paedia' (child) and 'iatrike' (physician). 'Paediatrics' i ...
clinics. They also treat in-patients and out-patients under the guidance of qualified Clinical officers and organise outreach services where they venture into remote rural villages, seeing patients and immunising children. During this time they complete a project in community diagnosis.
They also learn
Health Service Management
Health administration, healthcare administration, healthcare management or hospital management is the field relating to leadership, management, and administration of public health systems, health care systems, hospitals, and hospital networ ...
which prepares them for their management and leadership roles in health centers and other institutions.
Internship and registration
All clinical officers must work as full-time interns for one year without pay or any form of motivation at an approved public or mission hospital before getting a licence to practice medicine, a situation that has resulted to major strikes by clinical officers in the past leading to operation standstills in public hospitals when these strikes occur. On passing the final qualifying examination, they take the
hippocratic oath
The Hippocratic Oath is an oath of ethics historically taken by physicians. It is one of the most widely known of Greek medical texts. In its original form, it requires a new physician to swear, by a number of healing gods, to uphold specific e ...
then apply for provisional registration by the Clinical Officers Council,
the statutory body that regulates the practice of clinical officers in the country. The internship involves supervised rotations in the major clinical departments namely
casualty
Casualty may refer to:
*Casualty (person), a person who is killed or rendered unfit for service in a war or natural disaster
**Civilian casualty, a non-combatant killed or injured in warfare
* The emergency department of a hospital, also known as ...
,
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
,
paediatrics
Pediatrics ( also spelled ''paediatrics'' or ''pædiatrics'') is the branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. In the United Kingdom, paediatrics covers many of their youth until the ...
,
surgery
Surgery ''cheirourgikē'' (composed of χείρ, "hand", and ἔργον, "work"), via la, chirurgiae, meaning "hand work". is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a person to investigate or treat a pat ...
,
obstetrics
Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surgi ...
and
gynecology
Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) is the area of medicine that involves the treatment of women's diseases, especially those of the reproductive organs. It is often paired with the field of obstetrics, forming the combined are ...
. They are supervised by consultants in the respective fields. The consultants ensure that they can practice clinical medicine safely before signing them off for registration. An internship booklet signed by the consultants is required for registration. After registration one is required to apply for a licence from the COC which allows them to practice medicine, surgery and dentistry legally in the country. This licence is renewable every two years. Renewal requires evidence of having attained 60 Continuous Professional Development (CPD) points in the CPD diary by further training, research and publications, attending conferences and Continuing Medical Education (CME) sessions or major ward rounds and outreach activities.
Careers Progression
An experienced clinical officer usually holds a senior clinical, administrative or teaching position within their organisation or establishes and manages his/her own private practice. One who holds the
Diploma in Clinical Medicine and Surgery can upgrade his/her qualification to the
BSc. Clinical Medicine and Surgery or undertake postgraduate training at the university. One may also enroll for the
Higher Diploma
A higher diploma is an academic award in Iraq, Libya, the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Ireland and Oman. In Iraq, it's one year after bachelor's degree (i.e., not equivalent to a bachelor's degree). In Ireland it is a postgraduate qualification at t ...
programme at the Kenya Medical Training College.
The Higher Diploma in Clinical Medicine and Surgery requires at least three years of working experience and lasts twelve to eighteen months leading to a specialised qualification and re-designation as a specialised clinical officer in one of the medical specialties such as
paediatrics
Pediatrics ( also spelled ''paediatrics'' or ''pædiatrics'') is the branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. In the United Kingdom, paediatrics covers many of their youth until the ...
,
reproductive health
Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a field of research, healthcare, and social activism that explores the health of an individual's reproductive system and sexual wellbeing during all stages of their life.
The term can also be further de ...
,
anaesthesia
Anesthesia is a state of controlled, temporary loss of sensation or awareness that is induced for medical or veterinary purposes. It may include some or all of analgesia (relief from or prevention of pain), paralysis (muscle relaxation), a ...
,
ENT
Ents are a species of beings in J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy world Middle-earth who closely resemble trees; their leader is Treebeard of Fangorn forest. Their name is derived from an Old English word for giant.
The Ents appear in ''The Lord of ...
,
ophthalmology
Ophthalmology ( ) is a surgical subspecialty within medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders.
An ophthalmologist is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care. Following a medic ...
and cataract surgery,
orthopaedics
Orthopedic surgery or orthopedics ( alternatively spelt orthopaedics), is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system. Orthopedic surgeons use both surgical and nonsurgical means to treat musculoskeletal ...
,
psychiatry
Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various maladaptations related to mood, behaviour, cognition, and perceptions. See glossary of psychiatry.
Initial psych ...
/
clinical psychology
Clinical psychology is an integration of social science, theory, and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and persona ...
, skin and chest diseases,
epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in a defined population.
It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidenc ...
,
pathology
Pathology is the study of the causes and effects of disease or injury. The word ''pathology'' also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when used in ...
and
Community medicine
Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the det ...
. A specialised clinical officer provides advanced medical and surgical care including invasive procedures in their specialty such as caeserian section, cataract surgery, tonsillectomy, psychotherapy and administration of anaesthesia.
Malawi
Medical care is generally provided by clinical officers who are even capable of providing surgical care. Clinical Officers are trained for 4 years, (3+1 year of clinical internship at designated teaching hospitals). One meta-analysis documented that the provision of caesarean section by clinical officers does not result in a significant increase in maternal or perinatal mortality. In other, words there was no difference whether the operation was done by clinical officers or medical doctor
Sudan
Southern Sudan
South Sudan (; din, Paguot Thudän), officially the Republic of South Sudan ( din, Paankɔc Cuëny Thudän), is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Con ...
separated from the Arab North (Sudan) in July 2011 after years of civil war that left much of the southern part in ruins. The healthcare system is almost non-existent.
AMREF started training clinical officers by setting up the
Maridi National Health Training Institute, name="AMREF"/>
The graduates supplement the efforts of COs trained in neighboring countries, e.g. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, most of whom work for international humanitarian agencies.
Since 2014, Juba institute of Health Sciences and Ayii University 2021 have now joined in production of competent cadres in the Health in the Republic of South Sudan.
Tanzania
In
Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
, training is under the
Ministry of Health. There are numerous clinical officer training schools and programs last three years. Internship is not required for registration.
Experienced clinical officers may enrol for an advanced diploma in clinical medicine which takes two years to complete. This qualification is regarded as equivalent to a first degree in medicine by universities and the Ministry of Health in the country. The graduates are known as
Assistant Medical Officer
A clinical officer (CO) is a gazetted officer who is qualified and licensed to practice medicine.
In Kenya the basic training for clinical officers starts after high school and takes four or five years ending on successful completion of a one ...
s which no longer exist since 2017 so a clinical officer can upgrade by studying a bachelor's degree in clinical medicine in any East African country for three years or study it in Tanzania for four years and graduate as a doctor equivalent to an MD graduate even in salary and job opportunities or can study the Medical Doctor(MD) which is a 5-year course plus 1 internship year making 6 years and can add 1 year to be Medical bachelor and Bachelor in Surgery (MBBS) if interested.
A further two years training from the Clinical Officer level leads to a specialist qualification in
anaesthesia
Anesthesia is a state of controlled, temporary loss of sensation or awareness that is induced for medical or veterinary purposes. It may include some or all of analgesia (relief from or prevention of pain), paralysis (muscle relaxation), a ...
, medicine, surgery and radiology etc.
Kampala International University
Kampala International University (KIU) is a private, not-for-profit institution based in Uganda. It was established in 2001 and assumed chartered status in 2009.
In pursuit of the dream to raise the next generation of problem solvers for the Eas ...
has opened a campus in
Dar es Salaam
Dar es Salaam (; from ar, دَار السَّلَام, Dâr es-Selâm, lit=Abode of Peace) or commonly known as Dar, is the largest city and financial hub of Tanzania. It is also the capital of Dar es Salaam Region. With a population of over s ...
where it is now offering its
Bachelor of Clinical Medicine and Community Health
The Bachelor of Science in Clinical Medicine and community health/ Bachelor of science in clinical medicine/ Bachelor of science in clinical medicine, surgery and community health/ Bachelor of clinical medicine and community health (Kampala Interna ...
.
Uganda
By 1918,
Uganda
}), is a landlocked country in East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
was training clinical officers who were called medical assistants at the time. The training is under the Ministry of Education and takes place in clinical officer training schools. Postsecondary programs last three years, focusing on medicine and hospice care, followed by a two-year internship.
Kampala International University
Kampala International University (KIU) is a private, not-for-profit institution based in Uganda. It was established in 2001 and assumed chartered status in 2009.
In pursuit of the dream to raise the next generation of problem solvers for the Eas ...
offers a
Bachelor of Clinical Medicine and Community Health
The Bachelor of Science in Clinical Medicine and community health/ Bachelor of science in clinical medicine/ Bachelor of science in clinical medicine, surgery and community health/ Bachelor of clinical medicine and community health (Kampala Interna ...
. High school graduates take four-and-a-half years to complete this degree while practicing clinical officers take three years.
Zambia
In
Zambia
Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...
, clinical officers who complete a three-year diploma of Science in Clinical Medicine course are called CLINICAL OFFICER -GENERAL (COG). Those who complete a three-year diploma in clinical psychiatry are called CLINICAL OFFICER -PSYCHIATRY (COP). Currently the upgrade of this diploma is a Bachelor of Science and holders are called medical licentiates. Medical licentiates have advanced skills in medicine and surgery and may be deployed interchangeably with physicians. Medical licentiates outnumber general physicians (with university degree) across all regions, with the ratio ranging from 3.8 COs per physician in Lusaka to 19.3 in the Northwestern provinces. They perform routine surgical and obstetric operations as well as providing clinical care in hospitals. The
College of Surgeons of East, Central and Southern Africa
The College of Surgeons of East, Central and Southern Africa (COSECSA) is an independent body that fosters postgraduate education in surgery and provides surgical training throughout the region of East, Central and Southern Africa. COSECSA deliv ...
(
COSECSA) is involved in their training to increase their surgical skills through the
Clinical Officers Surgical Training (COST) programme.
Burkina Faso
In Burkina Faso, as elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa, the use of non-physician clinicians began as a temporary measure while more doctors were trained, but has become a permanent strategy in the face of a crisis in
health human resources
Health human resources (HHR) – also known as human resources for health (HRH) or health workforce – is defined as "all people engaged in actions whose primary intent is to enhance positive health outcomes", according to World Health Organizati ...
. Different training alternatives have been used. Two-year advanced training programs in surgery were developed for registered nurses. Clinical officers (known as ''attachés de santé en chirurgie'') were district medical officers trained with an additional six-month curriculum in emergency surgery.
Many studies show that trained COs provide quality medical and surgical care with outcomes similar to physicians' providing similar care in the same setting. However, nurses re-trained to become COs have been associated with more adverse outcomes as shown in a study using 2004-2005 hospital data from six regions of Burkina Faso, which associated them with higher maternal and neonatal mortality when they performed
caesarian section
Caesarean section, also known as C-section or caesarean delivery, is the surgical procedure by which one or more babies are delivered through an incision in the mother's abdomen, often performed because vaginal delivery would put the baby or ...
s.
The observed higher fatality rate pointed to a need for refresher courses and closer supervision of the nurses.
Ethiopia
The first medical school in
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
was initially a "health officer" training institution. The training of health officers started at Gonder University in 1954.
Health officers training programs across Ethiopia require that students have some of the highest scores in National University Entrance Examination to be admitted. Health officers hold bachelor's degrees and undergo a three-year training program plus one-year internship. Those who complete a 2–3 years master's degree programs provide advanced care (e.g. emergency surgery).
Ghana
In
Ghana
Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and To ...
, Medical Assistants (MAs) have traditionally been experienced nurses who have undergone an 18-month post-basic course to become MAs. High school graduates can now attend a three-year diploma course to become MAs. In Ghana, from 2012, the nomenclature Medical Assistant had been changed to Physician Assistant..
[The Physician Assistant Profession in Ghana](_blank)
The new name Physician Assistant is not known among most Ghanaians The term Physician Assistant (PA) refers to three distinct groups of health professionals trained on the medical model to practise medicine and dentistry. They are the PA-Medical, PA-Dental and also known as Community Oral Health Officers and PA-Anaesthesia (also known as Nurse Anesthetists). These groups of mid-level health providers were trained exclusively in the past by Health Training Institutions (HTIs) under the Ministry of Health with the aim of extending care to the populace where physician numbers were scanty or not present.
Currently, there are eight universities in Ghana offering a 4-year Bachelor of Science degree in Physician Assistantship. The objective of the Bachelor of Physician Assistantship programme is to train graduates who will possess the ability to evaluate the health status of an individual, diagnose and treat acute illness as well as life saving interventions, manage chronic diseases, deliver preventive care and counsel individuals on psychosocial problems in independently or in collaboration with a physician.
In 2016, the PA-Anaesthesia group broke away and became certified registered anaesthetist (CRA) according to the Health Professions Regulatory Acts 857 which addressed them as certified registered anaesthetist. PAs are qualified by graduation from the PA educational programme and certification by the Ghana Medical and Dental Council.
Newly qualified PAs who are successful in their licentiate examinations by the MDC are issued with provisional registrations to enable them undertake one-year internship in an accredited institution, a prerequisite for permanent registration which would also serve as national service but without pay for the twelve months.
PA students in all PA training schools belong to the Physician Assistant Association of Ghana (PASAG). In order to foster unity, camaraderie and bond among members of the association, and to promote excellence in the discharge of their professional mandate, quiz competitions are held every year. The maiden edition was won by the Presbyterian University College, Ghana. After permanent certification, among other things, PAs diagnose and treat illnesses, conduct physical examinations, counsel individuals on preventative health issues, and order and interpret laboratory tests.
In addition, PAs are first or second assistants in major surgery, and provide pre- and post-operative care, and for that matter are trained and well versed in surgical skills.
Thus, PAs play roles in preventive Medicine, as well as in educational, research, and administrative activities.
The physician assistant is part of the medical team and is placed above the nurse but below the medical officer They perform tasks originally performed by doctors. Some call PAs as "village doctors" or "chiefs." To the patient, a PA is a doctor, since the PA practises medicine just as a doctor
The Ghana Physician Assistant Association-Medical at their last annual delegate congress, voted for a name change from the current name Physician Assistant to Clinical Officer. The members of the association believes that the ''Assistant'' attached to their name is limitation to what the PA actually does. The PA is not an assistant but an independent medical professional trained and licensed to practise medicine and dentistry. The association has therefore presented a new job description and the new name clinical officer to the Ministry of Health. The meeting which was chaired by the chief director of the ministry of health Dr. Afisah Zakariah who promised to address the grievances of the PAs soon to be known as Clinical Officers
Liberia
In
Liberia
Liberia (), officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the West African coast. It is bordered by Sierra Leone to Liberia–Sierra Leone border, its northwest, Guinea to its north, Ivory Coast to its east, and the Atlantic Ocean ...
, the Tubman National Institute of Medical Arts (TNIMA) was established in 1945. In 1965, the physician assistant (PA) programme was established as a joint venture between the Liberian government,
WHO
Who or WHO may refer to:
* Who (pronoun), an interrogative or relative pronoun
* Who?, one of the Five Ws in journalism
* World Health Organization
Arts and entertainment Fictional characters
* Who, a creature in the Dr. Seuss book '' Horton He ...
and
UNICEF
UNICEF (), originally called the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund in full, now officially United Nations Children's Fund, is an agency of the United Nations responsible for providing Humanitarianism, humanitarian and Devel ...
. Initially it was a one-year course, but currently it is a three-year diploma course accredited by the Liberia National Physician Assistant Association (LINPAA) and the Liberia Medical and Dental Association Board. In order to legally practice medicine as a PA one must sit and pass a state exam administered by the medical board.
Mozambique
In
Mozambique
Mozambique (), officially the Republic of Mozambique ( pt, Moçambique or , ; ny, Mozambiki; sw, Msumbiji; ts, Muzambhiki), is a country located in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi ...
, ''tecnicos de cirurgia'', or
surgical technologists, are experienced Clinical Officers who undergo further residential training in surgery under the supervision of senior surgeons lasting two years at Maputo Central Hospital, and a one-year internship at a provincial hospital. They are trained to carry out emergency surgery, obstetrics and traumatology and are deployed to the district hospitals where they are usually the sole surgical care providers.
South Africa
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
trains
clinical associates
Clinical Associates are a category of health professional found in South Africa. They assess patients, make diagnoses, prescribe treatment and perform minor surgery under the supervision of a physician.
Registration with the Medical and Dentists ...
for three years and awards them the
Bachelor of Clinical Medical Practice
The Bachelor of Clinical Medical Practice (BCMP) is a three-year degree awarded to clinical associates by universities in South Africa.
It is shorter than the Bachelor of Clinical Medicine and Community Health degree awarded to clinical officer
...
degree. The first program was launched by the late Health Minister Tshabalala Msimang on 18 August 2008 at the
Walter Sisulu University
Walter Sisulu University (WSU) is a university of technology and science located in Mthatha, East London (Buffalo City), Butterworth and Komani (Queenstown) in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, which came into existence on 1 July 2005 as a result ...
in Mthatha. The first class graduated in December 2010. Programs also exist at the
University of Pretoria
The University of Pretoria ( af, Universiteit van Pretoria, nso, Yunibesithi ya Pretoria) is a multi-campus public research university in Pretoria, the administrative and de facto capital of South Africa. The university was established in 1908 ...
and the
University of the Witwatersrand
The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (), is a multi-campus South African Public university, public research university situated in the northern areas of central Johannesburg. It is more commonly known as Wits University or Wits ( o ...
.
International
The specialised nature of medical training in the developed world has created a shortage of general practitioners and runaway expenditure on healthcare by governments.
primary care
Primary care is the day-to-day healthcare given by a health care provider. Typically this provider acts as the first contact and principal point of continuing care for patients within a healthcare system, and coordinates other specialist care t ...
is increasingly being provided by non-physician providers such as
physician assistants
A physician assistant or physician associate (PA) is a type of mid-level health care provider. In North America PAs may diagnose illnesses, develop and manage treatment plans, prescribe medications, and may serve as a principal healthcare prov ...
.
United States
Physician assistant
A physician assistant or physician associate (PA) is a type of Mid-level practitioner, mid-level health care provider. In North America PAs may diagnose illnesses, develop and manage treatment plans, prescribe medications, and may serve as a pri ...
s in the United States train for at least two years at the postsecondary level and can hold an associate, bachelors or master's degree. Most PAs have earned a master's degree. Some institutions offer a
Doctor of Science
Doctor of Science ( la, links=no, Scientiae Doctor), usually abbreviated Sc.D., D.Sc., S.D., or D.S., is an academic research degree awarded in a number of countries throughout the world. In some countries, "Doctor of Science" is the degree used f ...
degree in the same. The profession is represented by the
American Academy of Physician Assistants
American(s) may refer to:
* American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America"
** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America
** American ancestry, pe ...
.
United Kingdom
The
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
has in recent years employed
physician assistant
A physician assistant or physician associate (PA) is a type of Mid-level practitioner, mid-level health care provider. In North America PAs may diagnose illnesses, develop and manage treatment plans, prescribe medications, and may serve as a pri ...
s from the United States on a trial basis as it plans to introduce this cadre into their health care system. Several UK universities are already offering a post-graduate diploma in Physician Assistant studies. The PAs of the UK are represented by the Association of UK PAs.
Australia
The
University of Queensland
, mottoeng = By means of knowledge and hard work
, established =
, endowment = A$224.3 million
, budget = A$2.1 billion
, type = Public research university
, chancellor = Peter Varghese
, vice_chancellor = Deborah Terry
, city = B ...
offers a one-and-a-half-year
Master of Physician Assistant Studies
A physician assistant or physician associate (PA) is a type of mid-level health care provider. In North America PAs may diagnose illnesses, develop and manage treatment plans, prescribe medications, and may serve as a principal healthcare provi ...
to those with a bachelor's degree. Those with a post-secondary healthcare qualification such as registered nurses and paramedics can access the programme via a Graduate Certificate in Physician Assistant Studies; as long as they have at least five years full-time working experience. It has been announced that PAs will be allowed to work in Queensland as fully licensed practitioners in 2014.
China
China has about 880,000
Rural Doctors and 110,000 assistant doctors who provide
primary care
Primary care is the day-to-day healthcare given by a health care provider. Typically this provider acts as the first contact and principal point of continuing care for patients within a healthcare system, and coordinates other specialist care t ...
to rural populations where they are also known as
barefoot doctors
Barefoot doctors () were healthcare providers who underwent basic medical training and worked in rural villages in China. They included farmers, folk healers, rural healthcare providers, and recent middle or secondary school graduates who receiv ...
. They typically have about one year of training; those who sit and pass government examinations qualify to be rural doctors. Those who fail become
community health worker A community health officer is a member of a community who is chosen by community members or organizations to provide basic health care, health and medical care within their community, and is capable of providing preventive, promotional and rehabilit ...
s. However, there is a government move to have all rural doctors complete three years training.
Fiji
Africa and the rest of the world are perhaps following a well trode path. In 1879, a group of Indians arrived in
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
by ship having survived
cholera
Cholera is an infection of the small intestine by some strains of the bacterium ''Vibrio cholerae''. Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea that lasts a few days. Vomiting and ...
and
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
en route. During a period of crew quarantine, a small group was trained in
vaccination
Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop immunity from a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state, or proteins or toxins from the organism. In stimulating ...
. The experience was considered so successful that a few years later, in 1885, a group of young Fijian men started a three-year training program at the Suva Medical School, now known as the
Fiji School of Medicine
The Fiji School of Medicine is a tertiary institution based in Suva, Fiji. Originally established in 1885 as the ''Suva Medical School''. FSM became the College of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences as part of Fiji National University in 2010. ...
. The title given to the professional practice has had many names over the years, including ''Native Medical Practitioner'', ''Assistant Medical Practitioner'', ''
Assistant Medical Officer
A clinical officer (CO) is a gazetted officer who is qualified and licensed to practice medicine.
In Kenya the basic training for clinical officers starts after high school and takes four or five years ending on successful completion of a one ...
'', and ''Primary Care Practitioner'' (PCP). By 1987, the PCPs were training for three years before going back to their communities to serve one-year internship, followed by another two years of study after which they were awarded a
MBBS degree.
India
Under British rule, India trained licentiate doctors for three years. They were then registered with the General Medical Council of Britain. Most of them worked among the rural population providing medical care.
After independence, and on the recommendation of the
bhore committee in 1946, the training of licentiate doctors was stopped and their qualifications converted to
MBBS degrees. They were then
grandfathered
A grandfather clause, also known as grandfather policy, grandfathering, or grandfathered in, is a provision in which an old rule continues to apply to some existing situations while a new rule will apply to all future cases. Those exempt from t ...
into the Medical Council of India.
The plan was to train enough doctors who would serve the whole country. However, the plan has not borne fruit and doctors generally leave their rural posts after their internship for more lucrative and glamorous careers in the big cities.
As of 2009, the Indian government plans to introduce a three-and-a-half-year
Bachelor of Rural Medicine and Surgery (BRMS) degree to train doctors who will work in remote Indian villages. On graduation they will undergo a one-year internship period at a regional hospital before being licensed. Those with five years' experience will qualify for post-graduate studies on equal standing with their MBBS counterparts.
In
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, the
Madras Medical Mission
The Madras Medical Mission is a hospital located in Chennai. The first unit of the hospital was set up in 1987. The hospital houses 300 beds including 76 intensive care beds.
See also
* Healthcare in Chennai
* Medical missions
Medical missi ...
in Chennai, collaborating with
Birla Institute of Technology and
Frontier Lifeline has since 1992 offered a Bachelor of Science degree in Physician Assistant studies. The program duration is four years, comprising three years classroom and laboratory coursework then one year compulsory internship. Several other universities offer similar courses in partnership with US universities. PAs in India can pursue masters and doctor of science degrees.
Bangladesh
Mid-label Medical Care Health Human Resources of
Bangladesh
Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...
are Medical Assistant product of
Medical Assistant Training School (MATS)
Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, and Health promotion ...
.3 year Medical Assistant Course Started 1976.
Now 4 year Medical Assistant course
3 years academy+1 year internship
See Also
Sub assistant community Medical Officer
History
Bangladesh was part of British India until independence, and then spent a quarter of a century as
East Pakistan
East Pakistan was a Pakistani province established in 1955 by the One Unit Scheme, One Unit Policy, renaming the province as such from East Bengal, which, in modern times, is split between India and Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India ...
before Bangladesh seceded and became an independent nation.
British India
Modern Bangladesh was mostly part of Bengal in British India.
In 1914 the State medical Faculty of Bengal was established to conduct trained Licentiate of Medical Faculty doctors (LMF Doctor) for four years Mid-Label Diploma Physician. They were then registered with the
General Medical Council
The General Medical Council (GMC) is a public body that maintains the official register of medical practitioners within the United Kingdom. Its chief responsibility is to "protect, promote and maintain the health and safety of the public" by c ...
of Britain. Most of them worked among the rural population providing medical care. At independence East Pakistan had five medical schools:
* Mitford Medical School, Dhaka (1875-1957)
* Lytton Medical School, Mymensingh (1924-1962)
* Chittagong Medical School (1927-1957)
* Sylhet Medical School (1948-1962)
* Rajshahi Medical School (1954-1958)
East Pakistan
After independence from Britain, the training of licentiate doctors was continued in
East Pakistan
East Pakistan was a Pakistani province established in 1955 by the One Unit Scheme, One Unit Policy, renaming the province as such from East Bengal, which, in modern times, is split between India and Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India ...
and the training goes for three years and they become professional doctors, with the doctor title, whose degree is equivalent to clinical medicine. and on the recommendation of the
bhore committee in 1946, started MBBS Degree. They were then
grandfathered
A grandfather clause, also known as grandfather policy, grandfathering, or grandfathered in, is a provision in which an old rule continues to apply to some existing situations while a new rule will apply to all future cases. Those exempt from t ...
into the Medical Council of India & Pakistan. In 1962 Health Minister Monem Khan introduced Condensed MBBS Course for LMF Doctor at Sir Salimullah Medical College, Dhaka from 1963 to 1972.
Bangladesh
After independence from Pakistan, the training of licentiate doctors (LMF Doctor) course was stopped. All Medical School Converted Medical College & Course Started MBBS.
The First Five year plan
973
Year 973 ( CMLXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
* Spring – The Byzantine army, led by General Melias (Domestic of the S ...
of the Father of Nations sheik
Mujibur Rahman Government planned to create new health cadre namely "Medical Assistant" & institution name "Medical Assistant Training School" (MATS). In 1976 started Medical Assistant training course under State Medical Faculty of Bangladesh & Ministry of health & family welfare. In 1980 1st Batch Medical Assistant student enter government service. In 1983 Medical Assistant get Bangladesh Medical & Dental Council Registration 1st time. In 1996 Medical Assistant Post of DGHS & DGFP Converted Sub-Assistant Community Medical Officer (SACMO) prime minister
Sheike Hasina government, DGFP Implement it but DGHS no implement. In 2011 by the court order implement SACMO in DGHS Bangladesh.
From 2009 session Medical Assistant Course developed 4-year course (3 year Institution + 1 year Internship). Nowadays Medical Assistant Course conducted in 8 public institution & 146 private institution.
About 65% rural population receive primary medical treatment from Sub-Assistant medical officer (medical assistant). Medical Assistant no scope of Higher education & promotion. But Bongobondu sheike mujibur rahman government The First Five year plan
973
Year 973 ( CMLXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
* Spring – The Byzantine army, led by General Melias (Domestic of the S ...
page 520 & 521 brief details on Medical Assistant (After passing medical assistant course & 3 year service rural area in national service entering qualification of medical college for MBBS course).
Institution ATS/h3>
There are now 8 Government Medical Assistant Training Schools
*
Tangail Medical Assistant Training School (Tangail MATS)
*
Sirajgonj Medical Assistant Training School (Sirajgonj MATS)
*
Kushtia Medical Assistant Training School (Kushtia MATS)
*
Bagerhat Medical Assistant Training School (Bagerhat MATS)
*
Noakhali Medical Assistant Training School (Noakhali MATS)
*
Faridpur Medical Assistant Training School (Faridpur MATS)
*
Jhenaidah Medical Assistant Training School (Jhenaidah MATS)
*
Comilla Medical Assistant Training School (Comilla MATS)
There are 146 Private Medical Assistant Training Schools.
Malaysia
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
started training Medical Assistant in the early 1900s after independence from Britain. This profession has undergone several transformations over the decades in line with the current healthcare development in the country. The current name of this profession is
Assistant Medical Officer
A clinical officer (CO) is a gazetted officer who is qualified and licensed to practice medicine.
In Kenya the basic training for clinical officers starts after high school and takes four or five years ending on successful completion of a one ...
s (AMO), they are trained for three years in an undergraduate academic program (Diploma in Medical and Health Sciences or formerly known as Diploma in Medical Assistant) recognized by the
Malaysian Qualifications Agency
The Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA; ms, Agensi Kelayakan Malaysia) is a statutory body in Malaysia set up under the Malaysian Qualifications Act 2007 to accredit academic programs provided by educational institutions providing post secon ...
. In order to practice, all Assistant Medical Officers are compulsory to register under the regulating body of '
Malaysia Medical Assistant Board (Medical Assistant Act (registration),1977)'' and serve a compulsory resident posting for six months in Emergency and Trauma Department ''(Program Penempatan Wajib)'' under a clinical supervision by an Emergency Physician. Upon completing the compulsory posting, they will be deployed in public
hospital
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized health science and auxiliary healthcare staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically has an emerge ...
s, parastatal institutions (e.g. military, prisons), rural health centers, health clinics, community clinics, aged care centers, or private specialist hospitals.
Management and Science University
, Malaysia To date, there are five training institutions introduced by the Ministry of Health, Malaysia in the public sectors to train new Assistant Medical Officers;
Training Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Sultan Azalan Syah, Perak
Training Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor
#
raining Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Kuching Sarawak
''
Training Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah
Training Institute of Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Seremban
A registered Assistant Medical Officer can pursue their sub-specialty training ''(Post Basic certificates and Advanced Diploma)'' in various fields such as Emergency Medical and Trauma care, Primary Healthcare, Orthopedic, Cardio thoracic, Clinical Neuro-physiology, Sport Medicine, Anesthesiology, Diabetic care, Infection Control, hemodialysis, and many more. Assistant Medical Officer could also join the MBBS /MD after completing the undergraduate study by applying for those programs in either public or private institutions. Those who want to serve and continue as Assistant Medical Officer could further their study in a special programs for Assistant Medical Officers such a
Bachelor of Science in Emergency Medicine with honors
and '
Bachelor of Medical and Health Sciences with honors.
'' Unlike Physician Assistant / Associate (PA) and Clinical Officer (CO), Assistant Medical Officer in Malaysia is also involved in Pre-Hospital Care as part of their job scope. Postgraduate programs available for Assistant Medical Officer includes Master in Medical Science (Public Health), Master in Risk Disaster Management, Master in Medical Science (Emergency Medicine), Master in Hospital Management and Health Economics as well as PhD in clinical or medical sciences fields.
See also
*Allied health professions
Allied health professions are health care professions distinct from optometry, dentistry, nursing, medicine, and pharmacy. They provide a range of diagnostic, technical, therapeutic, and support services in connection with health care.
Definitio ...
* Healthcare in Kenya
*Paramedic
A paramedic is a registered healthcare professional who works autonomously across a range of health and care settings and may specialise in clinical practice, as well as in education, leadership, and research.
Not all ambulance personnel are p ...
s
* Surgical technologists
*Clinical associates
Clinical Associates are a category of health professional found in South Africa. They assess patients, make diagnoses, prescribe treatment and perform minor surgery under the supervision of a physician.
Registration with the Medical and Dentists ...
in South Africa
*Feldsher
According to the World Health Organization, a feldsher (german: Feldscher, pl, Felczer, cs, Felčar, russian: фельдшер, sv, Fältskär, Finnish: ''Välskäri'') is a health care professional who provides various medical services limit ...
in countries of the former Soviet Union
References
External links
Presbyterian university of East Africa
* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20080528151959/http://www.kcmc.ac.tz/Amo.htm Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College- Tanzaniabr>Egerton University (Kenya) - Diploma in Clinical Medicine and Surgery
Kenya Methodist University - Department of Clinical Medicine
Mt. Kenya University
Maridi National Health Training Institute- Maridi
Indian Association of Physician Assistants
The Clinical Officers Council
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Health care occupations